Terörü Önlemek: Durumsal Suç Önlemenin Terörle Mücadeleye Uygulanması

Yıl 2023, , 128 - 159, 01.10.2023

Ersan Usta

https://doi.org/10.53451/ijps.1333069

Öz

Bu makale, bir suç önleme modeli olan Durumsal Suç Önleme yaklaşımının ve buna bağlı literatürün terörizmi önleme uygulamalarına nasıl katkı sağladığını anlamak için genel bir çerçeve sunmaktadır. Terörizmle mücadele literatürde terörizmin kriminolojik bakış açısıyla ele alındığı çalışmalara oldukça az rastlanmaktadır. Terör nihai olarak bir suç biçimidir. Hırsızlık, cinayet ve benzeri diğer suç türlerinde olduğu gibi terör suçu için de durumsal fırsat unsurlarının etkili olduğu bilinmektedir. Makalede öncelikle Durumsal Suç Önlemeyi oluşturan teorik ve kavramsal çerçeveye yer verilmektedir. Bir sonraki aşamada fırsat faktörünün terörizm söz konusu olduğunda ne şekilde etkili olduğu incelenmektedir. Daha sonra bu fırsat unsurlarını ortadan kaldırmak için önerilen önleme politikaları aktarılmaktadır. Son olarak ise terörizmin durumsal önlemesine yönelik getirilen eleştiriler ele alınmakta ve gelecek araştırmalar için öneriler sunulmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Durumsal Suç Önleme, Suç, Terör, Terörizm, Terörle Mücadele

Preventing Terrorism: Applying Situational Crime Prevention to Counterterrorism

Öz

This article provides a general framework for understanding how the Situational Crime Prevention approach, a crime prevention model, and related literature contribute to terrorism prevention practices. In the literature on combating terrorism, studies examining terrorism from a criminological perspective are very rare. Terrorism is ultimately a form of crime. It is known that situational opportunity elements are effective in terrorist crimes, such as theft, murder, and other similar types of crimes. The article primarily covers the theoretical and conceptual framework that constitutes Situational Crime Prevention. In the next stage, it is examined how the opportunity factor is effective when it comes to terrorism. Then, recommended prevention policies to eliminate these opportunity elements are presented. Finally, criticisms of situational prevention of terrorism are discussed and suggestions for future research are offered.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Counter-Terrorism, Crime, Situational Crime, Prevention Terror, Terrorism

Kaynakça

• Arce, Daniel ve Sandler, Todd. “Counterterrorism: A Game-theoretic Analysis.”. Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, (2005):183-200.
• Atlas, R. ve LeBlanc, W. “Environmental Barriers to Crime”. Ergonomics in Design 2, no. 4 (1994): 9-16.
• Aykın, Hasan ve Sözmen, H. Kevser. Terörün Finansmanı. Ankara: MASAK Yayın, (2008).
• Barr, Robert ve Pease, Ken. “A Place for Every Crime and Every Crime in its Place: An Alternative Perspective on Crime Displacement”. in Crime, Policing, and Place. Essays in Environmental Criminology. Editör: David J. Evans, Nicholas R. Fyfe ve David T. Herbert, 157-173. London, UK: Routledge, (1992).
• Bastuğ, Mehmet F. ve Güler, Ahmet. “The Influence of Leadership on the Strategies and Tactics of Islamic State and Its Predecessors”. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism 13, no. 1, (2018): 38-59.
• Bernasco, Wim. “Modeling micro-level crime location choice: Application of the discrete choice framework to crime at places”. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 26, no. 1, (2010): 113-138.
• Bjørgo, Tore. Preventing Crime: A Holistic Approach. 1. bs., London: Palgrave Macmillan, (2016).
• Bjørgo, Tore. Strategies for Preventing Terrorism. London: Palgrave Macmillan, (2013). Boba, R. “EVIL DONE”. in Crime Prevention Studies Vol 25. Editör: Joshua D. Freilich ve Graeme R. Newman, (2009): 71-92.
• Braga, A. A. ve Kennedy, D. M. ‘‘Linking Situational Crime Prevention and Focused Deterrence Strategies.’’ in The Reasoning Criminologist: Essays in Honour of Ronald V. Clarke, Editör: G. Farrell ve N. Tilley. London: Taylor and Francis, (2012):51-65.
• Brantingham, P. ve Brantingham, P. “Nodes, Paths and Edges: Considerations on the Complexity of Crime and the Physical Environment”. Journal of Environmental Psychology 13, no. 1 (1993): 3-28.
• C. J. M. Drake. “The role of ideology in terrorists’ target selection”, Terrorism and Political Violence 10, no.2 (1998), 53-85.
• Ching Eng Leong. “A Review of Research on Crime Displacement Theory”. International Journal of Business and Economics Research, Special Issue: Supply Chain Management: Its Theory and Applications 3. sy. 6-1, (2014): 22-30.
• Clarke, R. V. ve Newman, G. R. Police and the prevention of terrorism. Policing 1, no.1, (2007):9-20.
• Clarke, Ronald V. “Seven Misconceptions of Situational Crime Prevention”. in Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety. 39-70. Editör: Nick Tilley, Cullompton/Portland: Willan Publishing, (2005).
• Clarke, Ronald V. “Situational Crime Prevention: Its Theoretical Basis and Practice Scope”. Crime and Justice 4, (1983): 225-256.
• Clarke, Ronald V. “Situational Crime Prevention”. In Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis, Editör: Richard Wortley ve Lorraine Mazerolle, 48-64, Cullompton, England: Willan Publishing, (2008).
• Clarke, Ronald V. Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. 2. bs, Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press, (1997).
• Clarke, Ronald V. Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, New York: Harrow and Heston Publishers, (1992).
• Clarke, Ronald V. ve Newman, Graeme R. Outsmarting the Terrorists. Westport, Connecticut, and London: Praeger Security International, 2006.
• Clarke, Ronald V. ve Weisburd, David. “Diffusion of Crime Control Benefits: Observations on the Reverse of Displacement.”, in Crime Prevention Studies Vol. 2, Editör: Ronald V. Clarke, 165-183. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press, (1994)
• Cohen, L. ve Felson, M. “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach”. American Sociological Review 44, sy. 4 (1979): 588-608.
• Cornish, D. ve Clarke, R. The reasoning criminal: Rational choice perspectives on offending. New York: Springer-Verlag, (1986).
• Eck John E. ve Clarke, Ronald V. “Situational Crime Prevention: Theory, Practice and Evidence” in Handbook on Crime and Deviance, Editör: Marvin D. Krohn, Nicole Hendrix, Gina Penly Hall ve Alan J. Lizotte, 355-376, Springer: Cham, Switzerland, (2019).
• Enders, Walter ve Sandler, Todd. “Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening? A Time-series Investigation.”. Journal of Conflict Resolution 44, (2000):307-332.
• Etzioni, Amitai. How Patriotic is the Patriot Act? Freedom versus Security in the Age of Terrorism. New York: Routledge, (2004).
• Freilich, J. D. ve Newman, G. R. Crime Prevention Studies: Vol. 25. Reducing terrorism through situational crime prevention. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, (2009).
• Freilich, Joshua D., Gruenewald, Jeff ve Mandala, Marissa. “Situational Crime Prevention and Terrorism: An Assessment of 10 Years of Research”. Criminal Justice Policy Review 30. p. 9, (2019) 1283-1311.
• George, Sarah St. “Assessing the Vulnerability in Targets of Lethal Domestic Extremism”. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Michigan State University, (2017).
• Gökmen, Emrah. “Beyoğlu'ndaki terör saldırısını gerçekleştiren terörist Albashır'a ait yeni görüntülere ulaşıldı” Anadolu Ajansı, 2022. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/gundem/beyoglundaki-teror-saldirisini-gerceklestiren-terorist-albashira-ait-yeni-goruntulere-ulasildi/2742048 (15.03.2023).
• Grasmick, H. G. Ve Bursik, R.J. “Conscience, Significant Others, and Rational Choice: Extending the Deterrence Model.” Law & Society Review 24, sy.3 (1990): 837–61.
• Gruenewalda J., Allison-Gruenewalda, K. ve Klein, B. R. “Assessing the Attractiveness and Vulnerability of Eco-Terrorism Targets: A Situational Crime Prevention Approach”. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 38, sy. 6, (2015): 433-455.
• Gürel, Selahattin. “Terör ve Terör Örgütlerinin Finans Kaynakları”. Uluslararası Yönetim ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 2, sy. 4 (2015): 15-27.
• Hamm, Mark S. Terrorism as Crime: From Oklahoma City to Al-Qaeda and Beyond. New York: New York University Press, (2007).
• Hsu, Henda Y. ve Apel, Robert. “A situational model of displacement and diffusion following the introduction of airport metal detectors”. Terrorism and Political Violence 27, (2015), pp. 29-52.
• Karatay, Ö. Ve Kapusızoğlu, M. "Mali ve Ekonomik Suçların Terörün Finansmanı Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi". Ekonomi Bilimleri Dergisi 3 (2011): 115-121.
• Kelly A. Berkell, “A criminological approach to preventing terrorism: situational crime prevention and the crime prevention literature” in Handbook of terrorism prevention and preparedness, Editör: Alex P. Schmid, s. 49-74. ICCT Press Publi̇cati̇on, (2021).
• Koschade, Stuart. ‘‘A Social Network Analysis of Jemaah Islamiyah: The Applications to Counter-Terrorism and Intelligence”. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29. p. 6, (2006), 559–575.
• Köklü Karagöz, Lale. “PKK'lı teröristlerin Amanoslar'a uzanan 'paramotor oyunu' bozuldu” Anadolu Ajansı, 2020. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/pkkli-teroristlerin-amanoslara-uzanan-paramotor-oyunu-bozuldu/2020672 (20.03.2023).
• Kumar, Suneel. “Small arms and Light Weapons : A Global Threat to Human Security and Development.” The Indian Journal of Political Science 69, sy.4. (2008): 787–800.
• Lafree, Gary ve Dugan, Laura. “How does studying terrorism compare to studying crime?”. in Terrorism and Counter-terrorism: Criminological Perspectives, Editör: Mathıeu Deflem, 53-74, New York: Elsevier, 2004.
• Mandala, M. Ve Freilich, J. D. “Disrupting Terrorist Assassinations Through Situational Crime Prevention”. Crime and Delinquency 64, sy. 12, (2018): 1515- 1537.
• McCauley, C. ve Moskalenko S. Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways Toward Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, 20 sy.3. (2008): 415-433.
• Özer, M. Murat ve Akbaş, Halil. “The Application of Situational Crime Prevention to Terrorism”. Polis Bilimleri Dergisi 13, sy. 2 (2011): 179-194.
• Painter, K. ve Farrington, D. “Street Lighting and Crime: Diffusion of Benefits in the Stoke on-Trent Project”. Crime Prevention Studies 10, (1999): 71-122.
• Paton, S. “EVIL DONE Vulnerability Assessment: Examining Terrorist Targets Through Situational Crime Prevention” Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Florida Atlantic University., 2013.
• Perry, S., Apel, R., Newman, G.R. ve Clarke, Ronald V. “The Situational Prevention of Terrorism: An Evaluation of the Israeli West Bank Barrier”. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 33, (2017): 727–751.
• Perry, Simon, Hasisi, Badi. ve Perry, Gali. “Who is the Lone Terrorist? A Study of Vehicle-Borne Attackers in Israel and the West Bank”. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 41, sy.11 (2018): 899–913.
• Reppetto, T. A. “Crime Prevention and the Displacement Phenomenon”. Crime & Delinquency, 22, sy. 2, (1976):166–177.
• Reyns, Bradford. “A Situational Crime Prevention Approach to Cyberstalking Victimization: Preventive Tactics for Internet Users and Online Place Managers”. Crime Prevention and Community Safety 12, sy. 2 (2010), 99–118.
• Richard Wortley. “Affordance and situational crime prevention: Implications for counter-terrorism”, In Terrorism and affordance, Editör: M. Taylor ve P. M. Currie. New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2012. 19.
• Roach, J., Ekblom, P. ve Flynn, R. “The Conjunction of Terrorist Opportunity: A Framework for Diagnosing and Preventing Acts of Terrorism”. Security Journal 18, sy. 3, (2005): 7-25.
• Shaftoe, H., vd. “Dealing with Terrorist Threats Through A Crime Prevention and Community Safety Approach”. Crime Prevention Community Safety 9, (2007):291–307.
• Sullivan, B., Chermak, S., Wilson, J. & Freilich, J. “The Nexus Between Terrorism and Product Counterfeiting in the United States”. Global Crime 15: Special Issue: Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism: Different Peas, Same Pod? p. 3-4 (2014): 357-378.
• Sullivan, B., Freilich, J. ve Chermak, S. “Financial terror: Financial Crime Schemes Involving Extremists Linked to the American Far-right and Al Qaida and Affiliated Movements”. In the Handbook of the Criminology of Terrorism, Editör: Gary LaFree ve Joshua D. Freilich, 420-432. Hoboken: Wiley Press, (2017).
• Sutton, A., Cherney A. ve White, R. Crime Prevention: Principles, Perspectives, and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (2008).
• Tillyer, M. ve Eck, J. “Getting a Handle on Crime: A Further Extension of Routine Activities Theory”. Security Journal 24, (2011): 179-193.
• Tillyer, M. ve Kennedy, D. “Locating Focused Deterrence Approaches within a Situational Crime Prevention Framework”. Crime Prevention Community Safety 10, (2008):75-84.
• Weenink, A. W. Situational prevention of terrorism. Remarks from the field of counterterrorism in the Netherlands on Newman and Clarke’s Policing Terrorism”. Trends in Organized Crime 15, sy.2-3, (2012):164-179.
• Welsh, B. ve Farrington, D. “Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”. Justice Quarterly 26, sy. 4 (2009): 716-745.