Climate Change as a Human Security Issue for Indigenous Peoples of Arctic

Öz

With the increase of the “new” security threats after the Cold War such as environmental problems, poverty, ethnic conflicts and migration, the human security approach that accepts the individual as a referent object has started to gain more attention. Climate change is one of the most serious problems that the planet and the humanity are facing in the 21st century. The negative effects of climate change are more evident and rapid in the Arctic region where the traditional lifestyles of the indigenous peoples suffer from melting glaciers and rising temperatures. In this study, the effects of climate change on indigenous peoples of the Arctic are examined from the human security perspective. The human security approach could provide a normative framework for building mechanisms where indigenous peoples involve more in climate change mitigation and adaptation mechanisms. Human security; with its different dimensions such as economic security, food security, health security, personal security, community security, political security and environmental security could provide a guideline for solving the problems arising from the vulnerability of the indigenous peoples of Arctic whose rights are violated by unequal and unjust practices of the states.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Human Security
• Climate Change
• Arctic
• Indigenous Peoples

Arktik Yerli Halkları için İnsan Güvenliği Sorunu Olarak İklim Değişikliği

Öz

Soğuk Savaş sonrası çevre sorunları, yoksulluk, etnik çatışmalar, göç gibi “yeni” güvenlik tehditlerinin artmasıyla birlikte bireyi referans nesnesi olarak kabul eden insan güvenliği yaklaşımı da ön plana çıkmaya başlamıştır. 21. yüzyılda gezegenin ve insanlığın karşı karşıya olduğu en ciddi sorunlardan biri olan iklim değişikliğinin olumsuz etkilerinin en fazla gözlemlendiği bölgelerden biri Arktika’dır. Arktika yerli halklarının geleneksel yaşam tarzları iklim değişikliğinin eriyen buzullar, artan sıcaklıklar gibi yıkıcı etkilerinden büyük zarar görmektedir. Bu çalışmada insan faaliyetleri sonucu ortaya çıkan iklim değişikliğinin Arktika Bölgesi’nde yaşayan yerli halklar üzerindeki etkileri insan güvenliği perspektifinden incelenmektedir. Yerli halkların iklim değişikliği azaltım ve uyum çalışmalarında daha etkin rol oynayabilecekleri mekanizmaların inşası için insan güvenliği yaklaşımı normatif bir çerçeve sunabilir. İnsan güvenliğinin; ekonomik güvenlik, gıda güvenliği, sağlık güvenliği, kişisel güvenlik, topluluk güvenliği, siyasi güvenlik ve çevre güvenliği olarak tanımlanan her bir boyutu Arktika yerlilerinin iklim değişikliği karşısındaki savunmasızlıklarından ve halihazırda sınırları içerisinde yaşadıkları devletlerin eşitsiz uygulamalarından ve hak ihlallerinden kaynaklanan sorunlarının çözümü için yol gösterici olabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İnsan Güvenliği
• İklim Değişikliği
• Arktika
• Yerli Halklar

Kaynakça

1. AMAP, Assessment 2015: Human Health in the Arctic. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (Oslo: AMAP, 2015).
2. AMAP, Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area (Oslo: AMAP, 2017).
3. ArcGIS Resmi İnternet Sitesi, https://www.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=2228ac6bf45a4cebafc1c3002ffef0c4 (Erişim tarihi: 03.11.2020).
4. Arctic Council, Arctic Resilience Interim Report 2013 (Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute and the Stockholm Resilience Centre Arctic Council, 2013).
5. Arctic Council, Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council, 1994.
6. Arctic Council, Kiruna Declaration: On the Occasion of the Eighth Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council, 2013.
7. Arctic Council, Tromso Declaration on the Occasion of the Sixth Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council, 2009.
8. Arctic Human Development Report, eds. Joan Nymand Larsen ve Gail Fondahl (Denmark: Nordic Council of Ministers, 2014).

9. Arktika Konseyi Resmi İnternet Sitesi, https://arctic-council.org/en/ (Erişim tarihi: 26.12.2020).
10. Balta, E., “Uluslararası Savaş”, Küresel Siyasete Giriş Uluslararası İlişkilerde Kavramlar, Teoriler, Süreçler, ed. Evren Balta (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2014), 257-279.
11. Barents-Euro Arctic Cooperation, https://www.barentscooperation.org/en/Barents-Euro-Arctic-Council (Erişim tarihi: 26.12.2020).
12. Berner J. ve Furgal, C., “Human Health”, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Report (2004) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 863-906.
13. Briggs, C. M., “Arctic environmental security and abrupt climate change”, Environmental and Human Security in the Arctic, eds. Gunhild Hoogensen Gjørv vd. (New York: Routledge, 2014), 98-113.
14. Chinkin, C. ve Kaldor, M., “Second-Generation Human Security”, International Law and New Wars, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 479-526.
15. Costello, A. vd., “Managing the health effects of climate change”, Lancet 373 (2009): 1693-1733.
16. Dalby, S., “Güvenlik ve Çevre Bağlantılarına Yeniden Bakmak”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 5, no. 18 (2008): 179-195.
17. Dalby, S., “Climate Change New Dimensions of Environmental Security”, The RUSI Journal 158, no. 3 (2013): 34-43.
18. Department of Cultural Heritage Gwich’in Tribal Council/Gwich'in Renewable Resources Board, Gwich’in Knowledge of Insects, 2017, http://www.grrb.nt.ca/pdf/wildlife/Gwichin%20Knowledge%20of%20Insects%20Final.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 19.11.2020).
19. Farer, T., “Human Security: Defining the Elephant and Imagining Its Tasks”, Asian Journal of International Law 1 (2011): 43-55.
20. Gasper, D., “The idea of human security”, Climate Change, Ethics and Human Security, eds. Karen O’Brien, Asunción Lera St.Clair ve Berit Kristoffersen (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 23-46.
21. Greaves, W., “Cities and Human Security in a Warming Arctic”, Climate Change and Arctic Security Searching for a Paradigm Shift, eds. Lassi Heininen ve Heather Exner-Pirot (Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 61-89.
22. Gwich’in Tribal Council, “Submission To The Government of Canada’s Arctic Policy Framework”, 21 Mart 2018, https://www.eia.gov.nt.ca/sites/eia/files/content/2018-03-21_gwichin_tribal_council_arctic_policy_framework_submission.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 15.11.2020).
23. Hamilton, L.C. vd., “Climigration? Population and climate change in Arctic Alaska”, Population and Environment no. 38 (2016): 115-133.
24. Heininen, L. ve Exner-Pirot, H., “Introduction: Theorizing and Broadening Arctic Security-Towards the Environment and Climate”, Climate Change and Arctic Security Searching for a Paradigm Shift, eds. Lassi Heininen ve Heather Exner-Pirot (Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 1-8.
25. Heininen, L. ve Nicol, H., “Climate Change as a Challenge for Human Security, and an Excellent Case for the Interplay between Science and Politics (in the North): A Brief Introduction”, Climate Change and Human Security from a Northern Point of View, eds. Lassi Heininen ve Heather Nicol (Canada: Centre on Foreign Policy and Federalism, 2016), 1-19.
26. Heininen, L., “A new northern security: environmental degradation and risks, climate change, energy security, trans-nationalism and flows of globalization and governance”, Environmental and Human Security in the Arctic, eds. Gunhild Hoogensen Gjørv vd. (New York: Routledge, 2014), 37-57.
27. Heininen, L., “On Climate Change as a Relevant Geopolitical and Security Factor in the Circumpolar North”, Climate Change and Human Security from a Northern Point of View, eds. Lassi Heininen ve Heather Nicol (Canada: Centre on Foreign Policy and Federalism, 2016), 219-250.
28. Hilde, P.S., “The ‘new’ Arctic the Military Dimension”, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 15, no. 2 (2013): 130-153.
29. Hossain, K., “Securing the Rights: A Human Security Perspective in the Context of Arctic Indigenous Peoples”, The Yearbook of Polar Law (2013): 491-522.
30. Inuit Circumpolar Council Resmi İnternet Sitesi, https://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/ (Erişim tarihi: 14.11.2020).
31. İnuit Tapiriit Kanatami Resmi İnternet Sitesi, https://www.itk.ca/ (Erişim tarihi: 26.12.2020).
32. Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, National Inuit Climate Change Strategy (Canada: Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, 2019).
33. IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. Christopher B. Field vd. (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
34. IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds R.K. Pachauri ve L.A. Meyer (Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, 2014).
35. Jaakkola, J. J. K., Juntunen, S. ve Näkkäläjärvi, K., “The Holistic Effects of Climate Change on the Culture, Well-Being, and Health of the Saami, the Only Indigenous People in the European Union”, Current Environmental Health Reports 5 (2018): 401-417.
36. Johns, L., “A Critical Evaluation of the Concept of Human Security”, 5 Temmuz 2014, https://www.e-ir.info/2014/07/05/a-critical-evaluation-of-the-concept-of-human-security/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.11.2020).
37. Jones, R. W., “‘Message in a bottle’? Theory and praxis in critical security studies”, Contemporary Security Policy 16, no. 3 (1995): 299-319.
38. Kerr, P., “İnsani Güvenlik”, Çağdaş Güvenlik Çalışmaları, ed. Alan Collins, (çev. Nasuh Uslu) (İstanbul: Röle Akademik Yayıncılık, 2017), 104-116.
39. Klein, N., İşte Bu Her Şeyi Değiştirir, (çev. Osman Akınhay) (İstanbul: Agora Kitaplığı, 2015).
40. Kolbert, E., Field Notes from a Catastrophe (New York: Bloomsbury, 2015).
41. McDonald, M., “Climate change and security: towards ecological security?”, International Theory 10, no. 2 (2018): 153–180.
42. Minority Rights Group, "Minority and indigenous groups – silent victims of climate change says new global report", 11 Mart 2008, https://minorityrights.org/2008/03/11/minority-and-indigenous-groups-silent-victims-of-climate-change-says-new-global-report/ (Erişim tarihi: 07.11.2020).
43. Newman, E., “Critical human security studies”, Review of International Studies 36, no. 1 (2010): 77-94.
44. Nordregio Resmi İnternet Sitesi, “Indigenous population in the Arctic”, 21 Mart 2019, https://nordregio.org/maps/indigenous-population-in-the-arctic/ (Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2020).
45. Oels, A., “From ‘Securitization’ of Climate Change to ‘Climatization’ of the Security Field: Comparing Three Theoretical Perspectives”, Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, eds. Jürgen Scheffran vd. (New York: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2012), 185-205.
46. Salick, J. ve Byg, A., Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change (Oxford: Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, 2007).
47. Sámi Arctic Council, Sámi Arctic Strategy, 2020. https://www.saamicouncil.net/documentarchive/the-smi-arctic-strategy-samisk-strategi-for-arktiske-saker-smi-rktala-igumuat (Erişim tarihi: 03.12.2020).
48. Sámi Council, The Sámi Arctic Strategy, Eylül 2019, https://www.saamicouncil.net/documentarchive/the-smi-arctic-strategy-samisk-strategi-for-arktiske-saker-smi-rktala-igumuat (Erişim tarihi: 10.11.2020).
49. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Indigenous Peoples, “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples”, https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples.html (Erişim tarihi: 25.12.2020).
50. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1994 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
51. United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security, “Climate Change”, https://www.un.org/humansecurity/climate-change/ (Erişim tarihi: 14.03.2021).
52. United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security, Human Security Handbook (New York: United Nations, 2016).
53. United Nations, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007).
54. Uysal Oğuz, C. ve Ersoy, G., “Kutuplardaki İklim Değişikliğinin Bölgesel ve Küresel Etkileri”, Küresel Bakışla Kutup Çağı Farklı Disiplinler Çok Yönlü Perspektifler, eds. Harun Gümrükçü, Aybüke İnan Şimşek ve Güneş Ersoy (Ankara: Efil Yayınevi, 2016), 157-170.
55. Uysal Oğuz, C. ve Ilık Bilben, M. S., “İklim Adaleti Tartışmalarına Güncel Bir Bakış”, Ekolojik Kriz ve Küresel Çevre Politikaları, ed. Hayriye Sağır (İstanbul: Beta, 2020), 195-220.
56. Uysal Oğuz, C., “İnuit Halkı ve İklim Değişikliği”, Küresel Bakışla Kutup Çağı 3 Tarihi ve Hukuki Perspektif-Ekolojik Dönüşüm, eds. Harun Gümrükçü vd. (Ankara: Efil Yayınevi, 2017), 112-131.
57. Vidal, J., “Russian Arctic city hopes to cash in as melting ice opens new sea route to China”, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/01/arctic-city-new-route-china (Erişim tarihi 20.11.2020).
58. Vincent, W. F., “Arctic Climate Change: Local Impacts, Global Consequences, and Policy Implications”, The Palgrave Handbook of Arctic Policy and Politics, eds. Ken S. Coates ve Carin Holroyd (Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 507-526.
59. von Uexkull N. ve Buhaug, H., “Security implications of climate change: A decade of scientific progress”, Journal of Peace Research 58, no. 1 (2021): 3-17.
60. Waits, A. vd. “Human infectious diseases and the changing climate in the Arctic”, Environment International 121, (2018): 703-713.
61. Wilson, G. N., “Inuit diplomacy in the circumpolar North”, Canadian Foreign Policy 13, no. 3 (2011): 65-80.