Sporcularda Bilinçli Farkındalığın Ahlaki Karar Alma Tutumuna Etkisi: Ahlaki Üstbiliş ve Duygusal Zekanın Durumsal Aracı Rolü

Öz

Bu çalışma spor lisesi öğrencilerinin bilinçli farkındalıklarının ahlaki karar alma tutumlarına etkisini ve bu etkinin altında yatan mekanizmayı belirlemek amacıyla yapılmıştır. İlişkisel tarama modelinde yürütülen bu araştırmaya, 899 spor lisesi öğrencisi (284’ü kadın ve 615’ i erkek) katılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde SPSS ve AMOS programları kullanılmıştır. Verilerin çözümlenmesinde, ilk olarak ölçüm modelinin test edilmesi amacıyla doğrulayıcı faktör analizi yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın hipotezlerinin incelenmesinde ise, korelasyon testi ve Bootstrap yöntemini esas alan regresyon analizi uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada, bilinçli farkındalık ile; ahlaki karar alma tutumu, ahlaki üstbiliş ve duygusal zeka arasında pozitif yönlü anlamlı ilişkiler belirlenmiştir. Bootstrap yöntemini esas alan regresyon analizi sonuçlarına göre, bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üstbiliş aracılığıyla ahlaki karar alma tutumu üzerindeki dolaylı etkisinin (Hipotez I) anlamlı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üstbiliş üzerindeki etkisinde duygusal zekanın düzenleyici rolünün (Hipotez II) anlamlı olduğu belirlenmiştir. Duygusal zekanın düşük ve orta olduğu durumlarda bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üstbiliş üzerinde etkisinin anlamlı; yüksek olduğu durumda ise anlamsız olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üstbiliş vasıtasıyla ahlaki karar alma tutumu üzerindeki dolaylı etkisinde duygusal zekanın düzenleyici etkisinin (Hipotez III) anlamsız olduğu belirlenmiştir. Spor lisesi öğrencilerinde bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üstbiliş vasıtasıyla ahlaki karar alma tutumunu pozitif etkilediği, bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üstbiliş üzerindeki etkisinin duygusal zeka tarafından düzenlendiği görülmüştür. Fakat bilinçli farkındalığın ahlaki üst biliş vasıtasıyla ahlaki karar alma tutumundaki etkisinde duygusal zekanın durumsal aracılık rolünün etkili olmadığı tespit edilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Bilinçli farkındalık
• ahlaki karar alma
• ahlaki üsbiliş
• duygusal zeka
• durumsal aracılık

The Effect of Mindfulness on Moral Decision-Making Attitudes in Athletes: Moderated Mediation Control of Moral Metacognition and Emotional Intelligence

Öz

This study has been conducted to determine the effect of conscious awareness of sports high school students on moral decision-making attitudes and the mechanism that underlies this effect. 899 sports high school students (284 female and 615 male) participated in this research conducted in the relational screening model. When examining the data, SPSS and AMOS programs have been used. In the analysis of the data, confirmatory factor analysis was first performed to test the measurement model. And in the examination of the hypotheses of the study, regression analysis based on correlation test and Bootstrap method were used. In the study, significant positive relationships are identified between mindfulness and moral decision-making attitude, moral metacognition, and emotional intelligence. According to the results of regression analysis based on the Bootstrap method, the indirect effect of mindfulness on moral decision-making attitude through moral metacognition (Hypothesis I) has been found to be significant. The regulatory role of emotional intelligence (Hypothesis II) in the effect of mindfulness on moral metacognition has been observed to be significant. In situations where emotional intelligence is low and medium, the effect of conscious awareness on moral metacognition is significant and when high, it has been observed to be insignificant. In the indirect effect of mindfulness on moral decision-making through moral metacognition, the regulatory effect of emotional intelligence (Hypothesis III) has been found to be insignificant. It has been observed that mindfulness positively affects the attitude of moral decision-making through moral metacognition in sports high school students, and the effect of mindfulness on moral metacognition is regulated by emotional intelligence. However, it has been found that the situational mediating role of emotional intelligence is not effective in the effect of mindfulness on moral decision-making attitudes through moral metacognition.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Mindfulness
• moral decision-making
• moral metacognition
• emotional intelligence
• moderated mediation

Kaynakça

1. Akbuğa, T. (2018). Investigation of moral decision-making attitudes of students playing in school teams in secondary education (Thesis No. 537332) [Master's thesis, İnönü University-Malatya]. Council of Higher Education National Thesis Center.
2. Anderson, S. A., Haraldsdottir, K., & Watson, D. (2021). Mindfulness in athletes. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 20(12), 655–660. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000919
3. Arahuete, L., & Pinazo, D. (2022). The effect of mindfulness training on the self-regulation of socio-moral thoughts. Psychological Reports, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941221146702
4. Aslan, Ş., & Özata, M. (2008). Investigating the relationship between emotional intelligence and burnout: The case of health care workers. Erciyes University Journal of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences(30), 77–97.
5. Baltzell, A., & Summers, J. (2017). The power of mindfulness. Springer International Publishing.
6. Bar-On, R. (2005). A measure of emotional and social intelligence. In The 105th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association (Vol. 17, pp. 1–13).
7. Berry, D. R., Wall, C. S., Tubbs, J. D., Zeidan, F., & Brown, K. W. (2023). Short-term training in mindfulness predicts helping behavior toward racial ingroup and outgroup members. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 14(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550621105309
8. Berryman, K. (2024). The ethical dimensions of mindfulness in public health. Mindfulness, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02340-7

9. Berryman, K., Lazar, S. W., & Hohwy, J. (2023). Do contemplative practices make us more moral? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 27(10), 916–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.07.005
10. Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., ... & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph077
11. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2023). Data analysis handbook for social sciences. Pegem Akademi.
12. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2023). Scientific research methods in education. Pegem Akademi.
13. Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (3rd ed.). Routledge.
14. Cairncross, M. (2019). The effects of an Internet-delivered mindfulness-based intervention on perceived stress, psychological symptoms, and emotion regulation (Publication No. 13861983) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Windsor-Canada]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
15. Cevahircioğlu, B., Karakuş, E., & Karakuş, K. (2024). Examining the relationship between mindfulness and effective decision making in sport higher education institution students. Ordu University Institute of Social Sciences Journal of Social Sciences Research, 14(4), 1593–1607. https://doi.org/10.48146/odusobiad.1514236
16. Chan, D. W. (2004). Perceived emotional intelligence and self-efficacy among Chinese secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(8), 1781–1795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.07.007
17. Cheruvalath, R. (2019). Does studying ‘ethics’ improve engineering students’ meta-moral cognitive skills? Science and Engineering Ethics, 25(2), 583–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-017-0009-x
18. Chiasson, V., Vera-Estay, E., Lalonde, G., Dooley, J. J., & Beauchamp, M. H. (2017). Assessing social cognition: Age-related changes in moral reasoning in childhood and adolescence. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(3), 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1268650
19. Christensen, L. B., Johnson, R. B., & Turner, L. A. (2015). Research methods design and analysis (Ahmet Aypay, Trans. Ed.). Anı Yayıncılık.
20. Coimbra, D. R., Bevilacqua, G. G., Pereira, F. S., & Andrade, A. (2021). Effect of mindfulness training on fatigue and recovery in elite volleyball athletes: A randomized controlled follow-up study. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 20(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2021.1
21. Creswell, J. D. (2017). Mindfulness interventions. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 491–516. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139
22. Çelik, İ., & Sarıçam, H. (2018, March). Moral metacognition scale: Turkish adaptation, validity and reliability study. In İKSAD 1st International Social Sciences Congress, Mardin, Türkiye.
23. Çelik, N., & Akgün, N. (2024). The predictive effect of exercise frequency and mindfulness on psychological well-being: Descriptive research. Turkiye Clinics Journal of Sports Sciences, 16(2), 202–208. https://doi.org/10.5336/sportsci.2024-101658
24. Çetin, M. Ç., & Kara, M. (2024). Effective decision making scale in sport (SEKVÖ): Validity and reliability study. Gazi Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 29(1), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.53434/gbesbd.1377855
25. Gellmers, J., & Yan, N. (2023). Digital leisure engagement and positive outcomes in the workplace: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021014
26. De Jager, B., Jansen, M., & Reezigt, G. (2005). The development of metacognition in primary school learning environments. School Effectiveness and School İmprovement, 16(2), 179-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243450500114181
27. Du, W., Yu, H., Liu, X., & Zhou, X. (2023). Mindfulness training reduces slippery slope effects in moral decision-making and moral judgment. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 2967. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29614-9
28. Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving (Resnick. LR, Ed.). The Nature of intelligence. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum.
29. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
30. Gao, Q., & Zhang, L. (2023). Brief mindfulness meditation intervention improves attentional control of athletes in virtual reality shooting competition: Evidence from fNIRS and eye tracking. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 69, 102477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102477
31. Gardner, F. L., & Moore, Z. E. (2017). Mindfulness-based and acceptance-based interventions in sport and performance contexts. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 180-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.06.001
32. Germer, C. K., Siegel, R. D., & Fulton, P. R. (2013). Sample chapter: Mindfulness and psychotherapy (Second Edition). The Guilford Press.
33. Ghanizadeh, A., Makiabadi, H., & Navokhi, S. A. (2019). Relating EFL university students' mindfulness and resilience to self-fulfilment and motivation in learning. Issues in Educational Research, 29(3), 695-714.
34. Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 10(1), 83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018441
35. Goleman, D. (1995). Why it can matter more than IQ. Emotional intelligence.
36. Göldağ, B., & Kanat, S. (2024). Examining the relationship between university students' metacognition levels and problemsolving levels. The Journal of Academic Social Science, 78(78), 135-156. https://doi.org/10.16992/ASOS.14130
37. Göncü, B. S., & Balcı, B. (2023). The importance of mindfulness in terms of challenge and threat perception in sport. International Journal of Sport Exercise and Training Sciences-IJSETS, 9(2), 59–60. https://doi.org/10.18826/useeabd.1296674
38. Gross, M., Moore, Z. E., Gardner, F. L., Wolanin, A. T., Pess, R., & Marks, D. R. (2018). An empirical examination comparing the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment approach and psychological skills training for the mental health and sport performance of female student athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(4), 431–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2016.1250802
39. Gürbüz, S. (2021). Mediating, regulatory and situational impact analyses in social sciences. Seçkin Publishing.
40. Gürpınar, B. (2014). Adaptation of the moral decision-making attitudes scale in youth sports to Turkish culture: Validity and reliability study in a Turkish sample. Education and Science, 39(176). http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3643
41. Hafenbrack, A. C., LaPalme, M. L., & Solal, I. (2022). Mindfulness meditation reduces guilt and prosocial reparation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 123(1), 28–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000298
42. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
43. Hasson, G. (2019). Emotional intelligence: Managing emotions to make a positive impact on your life and career. John Wiley & Sons.
44. Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
45. Hill, C. L., & Updegraff, J. A. (2012). Mindfulness and its relationship to emotional regulation. Emotion, 12(1), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026355
46. Jordan, E. (2016). Emotional intelligence mastery: A practical guide to improving your EQ. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
47. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2023). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hachette UK.
48. Kızılkaya, M., & Yılmaz, K. (2024). The effect of mindfulness in gambling addiction. Journal of Nursing Science, 7(1), 90–99. https://doi.org/10.54189/hbd.1283843
49. Kohlberg, L. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. Review of Child Development Research, 1, 381–431.
50. Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23(1), 4–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802619031
51. Kuhn, D., & Dean, D. Jr. (2004). Metacognition: A bridge between cognitive psychology and educational practice. Theory into Practice, 43(4), 268–273. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4304_4
52. Laborde, S., Dosseville, F., & Allen, M. S. (2016). Emotional intelligence in sport and exercise: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(8), 862–874. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12510
53. Libbrecht, N., Beuckelaer, A. D., Lievens, F., & Rockstuhl, T. (2014). Measurement invariance of the Wong and Law emotional intelligence scale scores: Does the measurement structure hold across Far Eastern and European countries? Applied Psychology, 63(2), 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00513.x
54. Martinez, M. E. (2006). What is metacognition? Phi Delta Kappan, 87(9), 696–699. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170608700916
55. McMahon, J. M., & Good, D. J. (2015). The moral metacognition scale: Development and validation. Ethics & Behavior, 26(5), 357–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2015.1028548
56. Mellalieu, S. D., Neil, R., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. (2009). Competition stress in sport performers: Stressors experienced in the competition environment. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(7), 729–744. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410902889834
57. Milliken, A. (2018). Refining moral agency: Insights from moral psychology and moral philosophy. Nursing Philosophy, 19(1), e12185. https://doi.org/10.1111/nup.12185
58. Ming, X., Bai, X., Fu, J., & Yang, J. (2024). Decreasing workplace unethical behavior through mindfulness: A study based on the dual-system theory of ethical decision-making. Journal of Business Ethics, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05709-9
59. Moritz, S., & Lysaker, P. H. (2018). Metacognition—What did James Flavell really say and implications for the conceptualization and design of metacognitive interventions. Schizophrenia Research, 201, 20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.001
60. Kajee, N., Sheriff, R. S., Bernard, R., ... & Kuyken, W. (2023). Effect of mindfulness-based programmes on elite athlete mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 57(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105596
61. NASPE. (2004). Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
62. Ortet, G., Pinazo, D., Walker, D., Gallego, S., Mezquita, L., & Ibáñez, M. I. (2020). Personality and nonjudging make you happier: Contribution of the Five-Factor Model, mindfulness facets and a mindfulness intervention to subjective well-being. PLOS ONE, 15(2), Article e0228655. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228655
63. Ömürlü, S. L. (2018). Observation of the relationship between metacognition and moral metacognition and perseverance with EEG technique (Thesis No. 506764) [Master’s thesis, Üsküdar University–Istanbul]. Council of Higher Education National Thesis Center.
64. Özbek, A., & Boztepe, Z. (2017). The relationship between emotional intelligence, organizational commitment and career in business life: Primary school teachers' health and social aid fund. Kırıkkale University Journal of Social Sciences, 7(1), 183–196.
65. Özyeşil, Z., Arslan, C., Kesici, Ş., & Deniz, M. E. (2011). Turkish adaptation study of mindfulness scale. Education and Science, 36(160).
66. Pandey, A., Chandwani, R., & Navare, A. (2018). How can mindfulness enhance moral reasoning? An examination using business school students. Business Ethics: A European Review, 27(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12171
67. Pearman, A., Lustig, E., Hughes, M. L., & Hertzog, C. (2020). Initial evidence for the efficacy of an everyday memory and metacognitive intervention. Innovation in Aging, 4(6), Article igaa054. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa054
68. Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., & Tang, Y. Y. (2015). Enhancing attention through training. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 4, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.008
69. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
70. Reynolds, S. J. (2006). A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process: Implications for study and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 737–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.737
71. Robbins, S. P., DeCenzo, D. A., & Coulter, M. (2013). Principles of management: Basic concepts and practices (A. Ö. Adem, Trans. Ed.). Ankara: Nobel Academic Publishing.
72. Ruedy, N. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2010). In the moment: The effect of mindfulness on ethical decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 95, 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0796-y
73. Schindler, S., & Friese, M. (2022). The relation of mindfulness and prosocial behavior: What do we (not) know? Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 151–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.09.010
74. Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., et al. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00001-4
75. Shields, D. L. L., & Bredemeier, B. J. L. (1995). Character development and physical activity. Human Kinetics Publishers.
76. Sit, C. H., & Lindner, K. J. (2005). Motivational orientations in youth sport participation: Using achievement goal theory and reversal theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(3), 605–618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.05.015
77. Soyer, F., & İnaler, E. (2024). Investigation of the relationship between metacognitive awareness levels and academic self-efficacy levels of sport sciences faculty students (Balıkesir University example). Niğde University Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 18(2).
78. Sun, J. (2014). Mindfulness in context: A historical discourse analysis. Contemporary Buddhism, 15(2), 394–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2014.978088
79. Thienot, E. (2013). Mindfulness in elite athletes: Conceptualisation, measurement, and application (Doctoral dissertation, University of Western Australia).
80. Thienot, E., Jackson, B., Dimmock, J., Grove, J. R., Bernier, M., & Fournier, J. F. (2014). Development and preliminary validation of the mindfulness inventory for sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(1), 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.10.003
81. Thompson, R. W., Kaufman, K. A., De Petrillo, L. A., Glass, C. R., & Arnkoff, D. B. (2011). One year follow-up of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) with archers, golfers, and runners. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 5(2), 99–116. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.5.2.99
82. Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper's Magazine, 140, 227–235.
83. Tingaz, E. O. (2020). Athlete mindfulness (mindfulness) scale: Turkish adaptation, validity and reliability study. SPORMETRE Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 18(1), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.33689/spormetre.642682
84. Trinidad, D. R., Unger, J. B., Chou, C. P., & Johnson, C. A. (2004). The protective association of emotional intelligence with psychosocial smoking risk factors for adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(4), 945–954. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00163-6
85. Tuncer, D., Ayhan, D. Y., & Varoğlu, D. B. (2022). General business administration information. Ankara: Siyasal Publishing House.
86. Tuzcuoğlu, S. (2024). The role of physical activity in the development of metacognitive awareness skills. The Journal of Academic Social Science, 78(78), 581–591. https://doi.org/10.16992/ASOS.14126
87. TDK. (2025). Moral definition. Türk Dil Kurumu. Retrieved January 3, 2025, from https://sozluk.gov.tr/
88. TDK. (2025). Decision definition. Türk Dil Kurumu. Retrieved January 3, 2025, from https://sozluk.gov.tr/
89. Verhaeghen, P. (2021). Mindfulness as attention training: Meta-analyses on the links between attention performance and mindfulness interventions, long-term meditation practice, and trait mindfulness. Mindfulness, 12, 564–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01532-1
90. Wells, A., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2004). A short form of the Metacognitions Questionnaire: Properties of the MCQ-30. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00147-5
91. Yavuz, M., Çalkan, B., Sönmez, E., Tetik, G., & Kadak, M. T. (2019). Investigation of psychometric properties of mindfulness scale in adolescents. Turkish Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 26(2), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.4274/tjcamh.galenos.2019.2018.07.022
92. Yılmaz, E., Karababa, B., Namlı, S., Canyurt, F., Bedir, D., & Topu, N. F. (2024). The role of sport in the relationship between emotional autonomy and self-confidence in adolescents. Uluslararası Bozok Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 5(3), 93–102.
93. Zheng, X., Ni, D., Liu, X., & Zhang, M. (2023). A mixed blessing? State mindfulness change, ego depletion and counterproductive work behaviour. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 96(2), 308–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12419