The Limits of the EU's Power in the Context of Sanctions Imposed to Türkiye in the Eastern Mediterranean

Öz

Since the beginning of the 2010s, Türkiye has been subjected to efforts of exclusion from the deepening energy collaborations in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 2020, Turkish Parliament approved a bill authorizing the deployment of troops to support Libya in countering various threats to its stability and integrity. These threats included terrorist organizations, irregular migration that had an impact on the entire region, illegal armed groups, and human trafficking. Additionally, Türkiye took steps to disrupt the anti-Türkiye axis in the region by signing a maritime delimitation agreement with Libya to establish clear boundaries for maritime jurisdictional areas. With this move, Türkiye positioned itself as a game changer in the Eastern Mediterranean. Greece and the Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus (GCASC), who are uncomfortable with Türkiye's steps in line with its rightful interests, have made concerted efforts to involve the EU in the issues related to the Eastern Mediterranean region, acting in favor of their own unilateral interests. The EU, eventually, has decided to impose sanctions on Türkiye, particularly as a result of discussions in the European Parliament. The biased and unfair attitude of the EU, coupled with its implementation of sanctions, will have significant political costs on Türkiye-EU relations. In this context, an evaluation is being made regarding the effectiveness of the EU's stance and applied sanctions, considering the EU’s perspective and its claim to be an actor in the region within the context of the current balance of power.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• European Union
• Türkiye
• TRNC
• Eastern Mediterranean
• UNCLOS

Kaynakça

1. Acer, Y. (2019). Doğu Akdeniz’de deniz yetki alanları ve Türkiye-Libya mutabakatı [Maritime jurisdiction areas in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Türkiye-Libya memorandum]. SETA.
2. Acikgonul, Y. E. (2016). Reflections on the principle of non-cut off: A growing concept in maritime boundary delimitation law. Ocean Development & International Law, 47(1), 52–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908320.2016.1124485
3. Bilgin, P. (2001). Turkey and the EU: Yesterday’s answers to tomorrow’s security problems? In G. P. Herd & J. Huru (Eds.), EU civilian crisis management. Conflict Studies Research Centre. Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.
4. Boyraz, H. M. (2023). Türkiye’nin Kıbrıs ve Doğu Akdeniz politikası [Türkiye’s Cyprus and Eastern Mediterranean policy]. In B. Duran, K. İnat & M. Caner (Eds.), Türk Dış Politikası Yıllığı 2022 (pp. 227–290). SETA Yayınları.
5. Cicioğlu, F. (2023). Türkiye’nin Avrupa Birliği Politikası 2022 [Türkiye’s European Union policy 2022]. In B. Duran, K. İnat & M. Caner (Eds.), Türk Dış Politikası Yıllığı 2022 (pp. 209–222). SETA Yayınları.
6. Council of the European Union. (2018). Council of the European Union, Guidelines on the implementation and evaluation of restrictive measures (sanctions), 4 May 2018. Brusels: European Union. https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-5664-2018-INIT/en/pdf
7. Council of the European Union. (2019a, November 11). Council Decision (CFSP) 2019/1894 of 11 November 2019 concerning restrictive measures in view of Turkey’s unauthorised drilling activities in the Eastern Mediterranean. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from EUR-Lex https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32019D1894
8. Council of the European Union. (2019b, July 15). Turkish drilling activities in the Eastern Mediterranean: Council adopts conclusions. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from European Council: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/07/15/turkish-drilling-activities-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-council-adopts-conclusions

9. Council of the European Union. (2019c, June 18). Council conclusions on enlargement and stabilisation and association process. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from European Council: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/06/18/council-conclusions-on-enlargement-and-stabilisation-and-association-process
10. Council of the European Union. (2019d, November 11). Council Regulation (EU) 2019/1890 of 11 November 2019 concerning restrictive measures in view of Turkey’s unauthorised drilling activities in the Eastern Mediterranean (Document 32019R1890). Retrieved December 06, 2022, from EUR-Lex https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019R1890
11. Council of the European Union. (2019e, October 14). Outcome of the Council Meeting President 3720th Council meeting. (3720th Council meeting, 13066/19). Retrieved December 04, 2022, from European Council https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/41182/st13066-en19.pdf
12. Council of the European Union. (2020, February 27). Council Decision (CFSP) 2020/275 of 27 February 2020 amending Decision (CFSP) 2019/1894 concerning restrictive measures in view of Turkey’s unauthorised drilling activities in the Eastern Mediterranean (Document 32020D0275, ST/6017/2020/INIT). European Union. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec/2020/275/oj
13. Council of the European Union. (2022a, April 13). Consolidated text: Council Regulation (EU) 2019/1890 of 11 November 2019 concerning restrictive measures in view of Turkey’s unauthorised drilling activities in the Eastern Mediterranean (Document 02019R1890-20220413). Retrieved December 06, 2022, from EUR-Lex http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1890/2022-04-13
14. Council of the European Union. (2022b, December 13). General Affairs Council, 13 December 2022. Retrieved January 04, 2023, from https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/gac/2022/12/13
15. Denza, E. (2011). European practice on the recognition of states. European Law Review, 36(3), 321–338.
16. Dyke, J. M. V. (2005). An Analysis of the Aegean Disputes under International Law. Ocean Development & International Law, 36(1), 63–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908320590909088
17. EEAS. (2022, November 12). Cyprus: Statement of the Spokesperson on the observer status for Turkish Cypriot secessionist entity in Organisation of Turkic States. Retrieved January 04, 2023, from Delegation of the European Union to Türkiye: https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/cyprus-statement-spokesperson-observer-status-turkish-cypriot-secessionist-entity-organisation_en?s=230
18. Eissler, E. R., & Arasıl, G. (2014). Maritime boundary delimitation in the Eastern Mediterranean. The RUSI Journal, 159(2), 74–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2014.912809
19. Erçakırca, M. (2022). Current maritime delimitation activities in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea: An evaluation from International Maritime Law perspective. In M. T. Özsağlam (Ed.), politics, economy, security issues hidden under the carpet of Mediterranean (pp. 30–43). European Publisher.
20. Erciyes, Ç. (2019, December 20). Doğu Akdeniz deniz yetki alanlarının sınırlandırılması Türkiye’nin siyasi ve hukuki tezleri sahadaki uygulamaları [Slayt] [Delimitation of Eastern Mediterranean maritime jurisdiction areas, Türkiye’s political and legal theses, practices in the field]. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/dogu-akdeniz-deniz-yetki-alanlarinin-sinirlandirilmasi.pdf
21. EU Parliament. (1983a, November 16). Joint Declaration of 10 Member States of the EC on the situation in the Republic of Cyprus, Annex, Nov. 17, 1983.
22. EU Parliament. (1983b, November 17). Resolution of the European Parliament on November 17, 1983, regarding the “declaration of independence” of the Turkish Cypriot part of Cyprus.
23. EU. (2003, September 23). Protocol No. 10 on Cyprus, Act concerning the conditions of accession 2003. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from EUR-Lex: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:12003T/PRO/10&from=ES
24. European Commission. (2018, April 17). Turkey 2018 Report Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions 2018 Communication on EU Enlargement Policy (Document SWD/2018/153 final). European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52018SC0153
25. European Commission. (2019, May 29). European Commission working document, Report on Turkey of 2019, accompanying Communication on EU enlargement policy (Document SWD2019 220 final). European Commission. European Union. https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2019-05/20190529-turkey-report.pdf
26. European Commission. (2022, October 12). Commission Staff Working Document Türkiye 2022 Report (Document SWD(2022) 333 final). European Union. https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-10/T%C3%BCrkiye%20Report%202022.pdf
27. European Council. (2018, March 22). European Council meeting (22 March 2018) – Conclusions. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/33457/22-euco-final-conclusions-en.pdf
28. European Council. (2019a, October 17-18). European Council conclusions, 17-18 October 2019. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from European Council: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/41123/17-18-euco-final-conclusions-en.pdf
29. European Council. (2019b, May 09). European Council press statement, the statements made by President Donald Tusk during the Sibiu Informal Summit press conference. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/05/09/remarks-by-president-donald-tusk-at-the-press-conference-of-the-informal-summit-in-sibiu
30. European Council. (2019c, June 20). European Council meeting (20 June 2019) – Conclusions. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from European Council: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/39922/20-21-euco-final-conclusions-en.pdf
31. Foreign Affairs Council. (2019, July 15). Outcome of the Council Meeting (3709th Council Meeting Foreign Affairs, Document 11260/19). Retrieved December 04, 2022, from Council of the EU: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/41183/st11260-en19.pdf
32. Gözügüzelli, E. (2019). Deniz hukuku rejimi üzerine Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti ve Güney Kıbrıs Rum Yönetimi’nin İç Hukuk Uygulamaları ve Çıktıları [Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Greek Cypriot Administration’ domestic law practices on Law of the Sea and their outputs]. Bilge Strateji, 11(20), 9–50. https://doi.org/10.35705/bs.751586
33. Güney, N. A., & Korkmaz, V. (2021). A new alliance axis in the Eastern Mediterranean Cold War: What the Abraham Accords mean for Mediterranean geopolitics and Turkey. Insight Turkey, 23(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2021231.6
34. Gürel, A., Mullen, F., & Tzimitras, H. (2013). The Cyprus hydrocarbons issue: Context, positions and future scenarios (PCC Report, No 1/2013). PRIO Cyprus Centre. https://cdn.cloud.prio.org/files/5a7fa003-b583-46c9-a410-04bd04441634/Report%202013-1%20Hydrocarbons.pdf?inline=true
35. Hürriyet Daily News. (2022, November 13). Ankara slams EU over Turkish Cyprus’ status in Turkic States’ body. Retrieved from https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ankara-slams-eu-over-turkish-cyprus-status-in-turkic-states-body-178486
36. Kasapoğlu, C. (2019, February 27). “The Blue Homeland”: Turkey’s largest naval drill. Anadolu Agency. Retrieved December 03, 2023, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/analysis/-the-blue-homeland-turkey-s-largest-naval-drill/1404267
37. Kökyay, F. (2021). Enerji güvenliği ekseninde Doğu Akdeniz gaz forumu [East Mediterranean gas forum in theperspective of energy security]. Journal of Research in Economics Politics & Finance, 6(1), 216-239. https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.852634
38. Kireçci, M. A. (2023). Türkiye’nin bölgesel politikaları: Fırtınada güvenli liman [Türkiye’s regional policies: Safe harbour in storm]. In B. Duran, K. İnat & M. Caner (Eds.), Türk Dış Politikası Yıllığı 2022 (pp. 209–222). SETA Yayınları.
39. Ozan, E. (2022). Doğu Akdeniz’in değişen jeopolitiği ve Türk dış politikası [The changing geopolitics of the Eastern Mediterranean and Turkish foreign policy]. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11(4), 2267–2288. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.1141014
40. Peker, H. S., Öztürk Oktay, K., & Şensoy, Y. (2019). Doğu Akdeniz’de deniz yetki alanları ve enerji kaynakları çerçevesinde Türkiye’nin enerji güvenliği [Turkey’s energy security in the framework of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea Jurisdiction and energy resources]. Güvenlik Bilimleri Dergisi, 8(1), 85–106. https://doi.org/10.28956/gbd.562972
41. Pirim, C. Z. (2016). Uluslararası Hukukta Hakkaniyetin Normatif Niteliği [The normative character of equity in International Law]. TAAD, 7(26), 169–201.
42. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2007, January 30). Güney Kıbrıs Rum Yönetimi’nin Doğu Akdeniz’deki Ülkelerle Deniz Yetki Alanlarını ilgilendiren İkili Anlaşmalar Yapma Gayretlerini hk. [Press Release Regarding the efforts of the Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus to sign bilateral agreements concerning maritime jurisdiction areas with the countries in the Eastern Mediterranean]. Retrieved December 05, 2022, from https://www.mfa.gov.tr/_p_30-january-2007_-press-release-regarding-the-efforts-of-the-greek-cypriot-administration-of-southern-cyprus-to-sign-bilateral-agreements-concerning-maritime-jurisdiction-areas-with-the-countries-in-the-eastern-mediterranean_br___p_.en.mfa
43. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2011, September 21). Türkiye – KKTC Kıta Sahanlığı Sınırlandırma Anlaşması İmzalanmasına İlişkin Dışişleri Bakanlığı Basın Açıklaması [Press Statement on the Continental Shelf Delimitation Agreement Signed Between Turkey and The TRNC]. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs: https://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-216_-21-eylul-2011-turkiye-_-kktc-kita-sahanligi-sinirlandirma-anlasmasi-imzalanmasina-iliskin-disisleri-bakanligi-basin-ac_.tr.mfa
44. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affarirs. (2022a, December 11). Press Release Regarding EU’s Statement on TRNC’s Membership to Organization of Turkic States as Observer. Enterprising and Humanitarian Foreign Policy. Retrieved from https://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-340_-ab-nin-kktc-nin-turk-devletleri-teskilati-na-gozlemci-uyeligine-dair-aciklamasi-hk.en.mfa
45. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2022b, November 02). Başlıca Ege Denizi Sorunları. Retrieved December 05, 2022, from https://www.mfa.gov.tr/baslica-ege-denizi-sorunlari.tr.mfa
46. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2022c, October 12). No: 312, 12 October 2022, Press Release Regarding the European Commission 2022 Country Report on Türkiye. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-312_-avrupa-birligi-komisyonu-2022-turkiye-raporu-hk.en.mfa
47. Şahin, İ. (2020, Haziran). Yunanistan’ın Libya politikası [Greece’s Libya policy]. Ortadoğu Araştırmaları Merkezi [ORSAM]. https://www.orsam.org.tr//d_hbanaliz/yunanistanin-libya-politikasi-.pdf
48. Şahin, İ. (2022, Kasım). Türk Devletleri Teşkilatı açısından KKTC’nin jeopolitik önemi [Geopolitical importance of the TRNC for the Organization of Turkic States] (İnceleme-Araştırma Dizisi, No. 04). Hoca Ahmet Yesevi Uluslararası Türk-Kazak Üniversitesi. https://www.ayu.edu.tr/mypanel/_app/upload/yayin/dosya/b1a59b315fc9a3002ce38bbe070ec3f5.pdf
49. Şahin, İ., & Yazıcı, H. (2021). Greece’s “changing” Israeli and “Unchanging” Egyptian policy. Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 19(3), 115–138. https://doi.org/10.11611/yead.974239
50. The Economist. (2020, August 20). Angst in the Aegean, A row between Turkey and Greece over gas is raising tension in the Eastern Mediterranean. https://www.economist.com/international/2020/08/20/a-row-between-turkey-and-greece-over-gas-is-raising-tension-in-the-eastern-mediterranean
51. U.S. Embassy in Greece. (2022, January 10). Statement on East Med Energy Cooperation. U.S. Embassy & Consulate in Greece. Retrieved December 04, 2022, from https://gr.usembassy.gov/statement-on-east-med-energy-cooperation
52. UN. (2003, February 17). Agreement between the Republic of Cyprus and the Arab Republic of Egypt on the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/EGY-CYP2003EZ.pdf
53. UN. (2004, March 02). Information note dated 2 March 2004 concerning Türkiye's objection to the Agreement between the Republic of Cyprus and the Arab Republic of Egypt on the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone. Law of the Sea Bulletins (No. 54). Retrieved December 04, 2022, from https://www.un.org/Depts/los/doalos_publications/LOSBulletins/bulletinpdf/bulletin54e.pdf
54. UN. (2011a, February 25). Agreement between the Government of the State of Israel and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone. Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002802d12b7
55. UN. (2011b, June 20). The letter from the Lebanese Minister of Foreign Affairs to the Secretary-General regarding the Agreement on the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone signed between the Government of the State of Israel and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus. Retrieved December 01, 2022, from https://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/communications/lbn_re_cyp_isr_agreement2010.pdf
56. UN. (2013). Communication from the Permanent Representative of Turkey to the United Nations to the Secretary-General dated March 12, 2013, in response to the verbal note sent by the Permanent Representative of Greece dated February 20, 2013.
57. Uygun, A. G. (2021). Doğu Akdeniz’de paylaşım rekabeti: Türkiye-Yunanistan gerginliği ve Avrupa Birliği’nin tutumu [Sharing competition in the Eastern Mediterranean: Türkiye-Greece tension and the European Union’s approach]. TYB Akademi Dil, Edebiyat ve Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(31), 69–89.