Theoretical Understanding of the Construction Process of the Cultural ‘Other’ in News Media

Yıl 2020, Sayı: 51, 131 - 146, 26.10.2020

Aynur Sarısakaloğlu

Öz

The purpose of this study is to display the processes of cultural identity construction within the context of the media by including approaches of identity and ‘Othering’, with the aim of developing an understanding of media representations of the cultural boundaries between the ‘Self’ and the ‘Other’. This research adds to existing literature in three different ways. Firstly, the article outlines concepts of identity and ‘Othering’ as well as constructions of cultural identity within the framework of the notion of ‘Othering’. Secondly, it argues that the news media plays an essential role in the construction of the ‘Other’ by setting agendas and framing issues by the manner in which it presents news, and how it treats them. Generally, news media discourses of cultural otherness rely on stereotypical representations, prejudice, and hate speech, due to the cultural differences that reveal the construction of cultural boundaries for the out-group as the culturally inferior ‘Other’ by including or excluding cultural peculiarities, as opposed to the in-group. Finally, this article concludes by suggesting that the concept of ‘Othering’ can be adopted to understand the influence of the media on constructions of cultural identity. Therefore, future research questions regarding media constructions of identity and the cultural ‘Other’ can be formulated on the basis of the theoretical findings in this article.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Identity Construction, Cultural ‘Other’, ‘Othering’, Media Representation, News Media

Theoretical Understanding of the Construction Process of the Cultural ‘Other’ in News Media

Öz

Bu çalışmanın hedefi, medyadaki kültürel kimlik oluşturma sürecini ‘Kendi’ ve ‘Öteki’ arasındaki kültürel sınırların medya tarafından nasıl yansıtıldığını kavramak amacıyla kimlik ve ‘Ötekileştirme’ yaklaşımlarını kullanarak incelemektir. Bu çalışma varolan literatüre üç farklı şekilde katkı yapar. Birincisi, makale ‘kimlik’ ve ‘Ötekileştirme’ kavramlarını, ve buna ek olarak ’Ötekileştirme’ kavramın içerisindeki kültürel kimlik oluşumlarını ana hatlarıyla tanımlar. İkincisi, haber yayınlarının gündemi belirleyerek ve sundukları haberlerdeki meseleleri buna uygun olarak çerçeveleyerek ‘Ötekileştirme’ sürecinde büyük bir rol oynadığını öne sürer. Genel olarak, haber yayınlarındaki kültürel ‘Öteki’nin anlatımları basmakalıp temsiller, önyargı, ve nefret söylemi üzerine kurulu olur; bunun nedeni ise iç-grubun dış-grubu kültürel açıdan aşağı bir ‘Öteki’ olarak tanımlamasına yol açan kültürel faklılıkların ikisinin arasındaki sınırların oluşumuna yol açmasıdır. Son olarak da, makalenin bitiminde ‘Ötekileştirme’ kavramının kültürel kimlik oluşumda medyanın etkisini anlamak için uygulanabileceği önerilir. Bu sayede, medyanın kimlik oluşumuna etkisi ve kültürel ‘Öteki’ hakkında gelecekte yapılacak çalışmalar bu makalenin kuramsal bulgularını başlangıç noktası olarak kullanabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kimlik İnşası, Kültürel 'Öteki', 'Ötekileştirme', Medya Temsilleri, Haber Medyası

Kaynakça

• Allport, G. W. (1954). “The nature of prejudice”. Cambridge, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing.
• Applegate, J. L., and Sypher, H. E. (1988). A constructivist theory of communication and culture. In: Y. Y. Kim, and W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), “Theories in intercultural communication” (pp. 41-65). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
• Berry, M., Garcia-Blanco, I., and Moore, K. (2015). “Press coverage of the refugee and migrant crisis in the EU: A content analysis of five European countries”. Project Report, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Geneva. Retrieved from: https://www.unhcr.org/56bb369c9.pdf (25. 06. 2020).
• Blinder, S., and Allen, W. L. (2015). “Constructing immigrants: Portrayals of migrant groups in British National Newspapers, 2010 – 2012”. International Migration Review, 50(1), 3-40.
• Bovitz, G., Druckman, J. N., and Lupia, A. (2002). “When can a news organization lead public opinion? – Ideology versus market forces in decisions to make news”. Public choice, 113(1–2), 127-155.
• Castells, M. (1997). “The information age: Economy, society, and culture. The power of identity”. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Collier, M. J. (2002). “Intercultural alliances: Critical transformation”. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Cooley, C. H. (1902). “Human nature and the social order”. New York, NY: Scribner. De Fleur, M. L., and Ball-Rokeach, S. (1975). “Theories of mass communication”. New York, NY: David McKay Company.
• Entman, R. M. (1993). “Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm”. Journal of Communication, 43, 51-58.
• Erikson, E. H. (1968). “Identity, young and crisis”. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.
• Galtung, J. (2006). “Peace journalism as an ethical challenge”. Global Media Journal: Mediterranean Edition, 1(2), 1-5.
• Gamson, W. A., and Modigliani, A. (1989). “Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach”. American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), 1-37.
• Goffman, E. (1963). “Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity”. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Gunther, A. C., and Christen, C. T. (1999). “Effects of news slant and base rate information on perceived public opinion”. Journalism & Mass Communication, 76(2), 277-292.
• Habermas, J. (1998). “Die postnationale Konstellation und die Zukunft der Demokratie”. [The postcolonial constellations and the future of democracy]. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
• Habermas, J. (1962). “Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit”. [The structural transformation of the public sphere]. Neuwied: Hermann Luchterhand Verlag.
• Hall, S. (1992). “The question of cultural identity”. In: S. Hall, D. Held, and T. McGrew (Eds.), Modernity and its futures (pp. 273-326). Oxford: Polity Press.
• Jacobson-Widding, A. (1983). “Identity: Personal and socio-cultural – A symposium”. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
• Katz, E., and Lazarsfeld, P. F. (2009). “Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications”. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
• Kepplinger, H. M. (2012). “Effects of the news media on public opinion”. In: W. Donsbach, and M. W. Traugott (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of public opinion research, (pp. 192-204). London: Sage Publications.
• Kim, Y. Y. (1988). “On theories in intercultural communication”. In: Y. Y. Kim, and W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication, (pp. 11-21). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
• Kristeva, J. (1991). “Strangers to Ourselves”. New York, NY: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
• Laclau, E., and Mouffe, C. (1985). “Hegemony and socialist strategy: Towards a radical democratic politics”. London: Verso.
• Lippmann, W. (1922). “Public opinion”. London: Allen and Unwin.
• Maletzke, G. (1963). “Psychologie der Massenkommunikation: Theorie und Systematik”. [Psychology of mass communication: Theory and systematics]. Hamburg: Hans-Bredow-Institut.
• McCombs, M. E. (1981). “The agenda-setting approach”. In: D. Nimmo, and K. Sanders (Eds.), Handbook of political communication (pp. 121-140). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
• McLuhan, M. (1964). “Understanding media, the extensions of man”. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• McQuail, D. (1994). “Mass communication theory: An introduction”. London: Sage Publications.
• Mead, G. H. (1934). “Mind, self, and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist”. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
• Oakes, P. J., Haslam, A. S., and Turner, J. C. (1994). “Stereotyping and social reality”. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Onkvisit, S., and Shaw, J. (1987). “Self-concept and image congruence: Some research and managerial implications”. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 4(1), 13-23.
• Philo, G. (2008). “Active audiences and the construction of public knowledge”. Journalism Studies, 9(4), 535-544.
• Quasthoff, U. M. (1978). “The uses of stereotype in everyday argument: Theoretical and empirical aspects”. Journal of Pragmatics, 2, 1-48.
• Rosenberg, M. (1979). “Conceiving the Self”. New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Said, E. (1979). “Orientalism”. New York, NY: Vintage Books Edition.
• Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., and McDaniel, E. R. (2007). “Communication between cultures”. Belmont, CA: Thomson.
• Schäfers, B. (2003). “Grundbegriffe der Soziologie”. [Basic concepts of Sociology]. Opladen: Leske + Budrich Verlag.
• Shannon, C. E. (1948). “A mathematical model of communication”. The Bell System Technical Journal, 27(3), 379-423.
• Shoemaker, P. J., and Reese, S. D. (1991). “Mediating the message: Theories of influences on mass media content”. London: Longman.
• Straub, J. (1998). “Personale und kollektive Identitäten: Zur Analyse eines theoretischen Begriffs”. [Personal and collective identity: A conceptual analysis]. In: A. Assmann, and H. Friese (Eds.), Identitäten. [Identities] (pp. 73-104). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag.
• Sumner, W. G. (1906) Folkways: “The sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals”. New York, NY: Ginn & Co.
• Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). “Identity negotiation theory: Crossing cultural boundaries”. In: W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 211-233). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Vedder, P., and Van Geel, M. (2017). “Cultural identity development as a developmental resource”. In: N. J. Cabrera, and B. Leyendecker (Eds.), Handbook on positive development of minority children and youth (pp. 123-137). New York, NY: Springer.
• Vignoles, V., Schwart, S., and Luyckx, K. (2011). “Introduction: Toward an integrative view of identity”. In: S. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, and V. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 1-27). New York, NY: Springer.
• Vorauer, J., Main, K., and O’Connel, G. (1998). “How do individuals expect to be viewed by members of lower status groups? Content and Implications of meta-stereotypes”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(4), 917-937.
• Weimann, G. (1991). “The influentials: Back to the concept of opinion leaders?” Public Opinion, 55(2), 267-279.
• Wendt, A. (1992). “Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics”. International Organization, 46(2), 391-425.
• Williams, R. (1966). “Culture and society: 1780 – 1950”. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
• Yep, G. A. (2001). “My three cultures: Navigating the multicultural identity landscape”. In: J. Martin, T. Nakayama, and L. A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in intercultural communication (pp. 79–84). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.