Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

HETEROGENEOUS DETERMINANTS OF INCOME DISTRIBUTION IN EU COUNTRIES: EVIDENCE FROM THE GWR

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 2, 556 - 568, 31.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1653191

Öz

This study analyzes the main economic and structural factors affecting income inequality in the 27 member states of the EU for the period 2009-2022 using Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR). Unlike traditional regression methods, GWR makes it possible to reveal the regional and local variability of the determinants of income inequality by taking into account spatial heterogeneities. In this study, the effects of macroeconomic variables, including per capita income, financial development, public expenditure, inflation and trade openness on the Gini coefficient, which is widely used to measure income distribution, are analyzed. The findings emphasize that the determinants of income inequality vary significantly across countries. For instance, the assumed non-linear relationship of the Kuznets curve does not appear to be valid in all EU countries. Financial development and trade openness have been empirically confirmed to increase income inequality. Conversely, the effect of public expenditures on income inequality is lower than expected, raising important questions about the effectiveness of public policies in this area. The effects of inflation on income inequality are heterogeneous across countries. However, it has been revealed that low levels of inflation in the Euro area during the study period have a limiting function on income inequality. Results indicate that economic policies aiming to achieve income justice should be designed by taking into account the specific socio-cultural, institutional and economic structures of countries. Taking regional differences into account is considered to be a critical element for policymakers in targeting a sustainable and fair income distribution at both national and European levels.

Kaynakça

  • Abay, M. Ç., & Sezgin, S. (2018). Türkiye ve bazı AB ülkelerinde yoksulluk ve gelir dağılımı. Journal of Life Economics, 5(4), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.15637/jlecon.263
  • Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown Business.
  • Acemoglu, D., & Restrepo, P. (2018). Artificial intelligence, automation and work. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Afandi, A., Rantung, V. P., & Marashdeh, H. (2017). Determinants of income inequality. Economic Journal of Emerging Markets, 9(2), 159.
  • Alesina, A., & Ardagna, S. (2010). Large changes in fiscal policy: taxes versus spending. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Afonso, A., Schuknecht, L., & Tanzi, V. (2010). Income distribution determinants and public spending efficiency. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 8(3), 367-389.
  • Anselin L. (2013). Spatial econometrics: methods and models. Springer Science & Business Media.
  • Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., Hanson, G. H., & Song, J. (2014). Trade adjustment: worker-level evidence. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(4), 1799-1860.
  • Awe, A., & Rufus, O. O. (2012). Determinants of income distribution in the Nigeria economy: 1977-2005. International Business and Management, 5(1), 126-137.
  • Beck, T. (2003). Financial and legal institutions and firm size (Vol. 2997). World Bank Publications.
  • Boschma, R., Frenken, K., & van Oort, F. (2015). The evolution of regional innovation systems: a literature review. Regional Studies, 49(9), 1383-1400.
  • Brunsdon, C., Fotheringham, S. & Charlton, M. (1996). Geographically weighted regression: a method for exploring spatial nonstationarity. Geographial Analysis, 28, 281-298.
  • Çapar, U., & Yayla, N. (2019). Türkiye’de bölgelerarası gelir dağılımı yakınsaması: mekansal ekonometrik analiz. Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi, 25, 283-302. https://doi.org/10.18092/ulikidince.578014
  • Duranton, G., & Puga, D. (2004). Micro-foundations of urban growth. Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, 4, 2063-2117.
  • Erkan, B., Şentürk, M., Akbaş, Y. E., & Bayat, T. (2011). Uluslararası ham petrol fiyatlarındaki volatilitenin işsizlik göstergeleri üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye örneği üzerine ampirik bulgular. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2).
  • Fabrizi, E., & Trivisano, C. (2016). Small area estimation of the Gini concentration coefficient. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 99, 223-234.
  • Glaeser, E. L., Kolko, J., & Saiz, A. (2001). Consumer city. Journal of Economic Geography, 1(1), 95-126.
  • Grossman, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1993). Innovation and growth in the global economy. MIT Press.
  • Görür, Ç., & Yüzbaşı, B. (2024). Study of the factors influencing cultural similarity in the post-migration adaptation process in the province of van using the GWR method. Journal of Geography, (48), 137-154.
  • Hailemariam, A., Sakutukwa, T., & Dzhumashev, R. (2021). Long-term determinants of income inequality: evidence from panel data over 1870-2016. Empirical Economics, 61(4), 1935-1958.
  • Khan, M. S., & Senhadji, A. S. (2001). Threshold effects in the relationship between inflation and growth. IMF Staff Papers, 48(1), 1-21.
  • Khajepasha, A. N., & Gkartzios, M. (2024). Spatial analysis of regional income inequality in EU countries. International Planning Studies, 29(2), 105-123. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563475.2023.2299778
  • Kilgarriff, P., & Charlton, M. (2020). A spatial analysis of disposable income in Ireland: a GWR approach. arXiv preprint arXiv:2008.11720. https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.11720
  • Lopez, H., & Perry, G. E. (2008). Inequality in Latin America: determinants and consequences. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, (4504).
  • Lu, B., Charlton, M., Harris, P. & Fotheringham, A.S. (2014). Geographically weighted regression with a non-euclidean distance metric: a case study using hedonic house price data. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 28(4), 660-681.
  • Luptáčik, M., & Nežinský, E. (2020). Measuring income inequalities beyond the gini coefficient. Central European Journal of Operations Research, 28(2), 561-578.
  • Mah, J. S. (2002). The impact of globalization on income distribution: the Korean experience. Applied Economics Letters, 9(15), 1007-1009.
  • Mahmood, S., & Noor, Z. M. (2014). Human capital and income inequality in developing countries: new evidence using the gini coefficient. Journal of Entrepreneurship & Business, 2(1).
  • Mehrara, M., & Mohammadian, M. (2015). The determinants of gini coefficient in Iran based on bayesian model averaging. Hyperion Econ J, 3, 20-28.
  • Munir, K., & Sultan, M. (2017). Macroeconomic determinants of income inequality in India and Pakistan. Theoretical & Applied Economics, 24(4).
  • Nadal, J. R., Font, A. R., & Rossello, A. S. (2004). The economic determinants of seasonal patterns. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 697-711.
  • Odedokun, M. O., & Round, J. I. (2001). Determinants of income inequality and its effects on economic growth: evidence from African countries (No. 2001/103). WIDER Discussion Paper. OECD. (2011). Regions and innovation policy. OECD Publishing.
  • Perugini, C., & Martino, G. (2008). Income inequality within European regions: determinants and effects on growth. Review of Income and Wealth, 54(3), 373-406.
  • Rajan, R. G. (2010). Fault lines: how hidden fractures still threaten the world economy. Princeton University Press.
  • Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Tselios, V. (2009). Education and income inequality in the regions of the European Union. Journal of Regional Science, 49(3), 411-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2009.00625.x
  • Sakarya, A., & İbişoğlu, Ç. (2015). Türkiye’de illerin sosyo-ekonomik gelişmişlik endeksinin coğrafi ağırlıklı regresyon modeli ile analizi. Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi, 32, 211-238. https://doi.org/10.14781/mcd.63200
  • Strat, V. A., & Popovici, O. C. (2015). FDI convergence versus real and structural convergence at the EU level. An approach based on the GINI coefficient. Economia. Seria Management, 18(1), 150-162.
  • Şahbaz, A., Adıgüzel, U., Bayat, T., & Kayhan, S. (2014). Relationship between oil prices and exchange rates: the case of Romania. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research/Academy of Economic Studies, 48(2), 245-256.
  • Taşar Yıldırım, T., Taşar, İ. & Özek, Y. (2025). The impact of education and health expenditures on economic growth in fragile five economies. İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (INIJOSS), 14(1), 354-369. https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1676008
  • Tselios, V., & Roinioti, A. (2023). The geographical dimension of income inequality in Greece: evolution and the ‘turning point’ after the economic crisis. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 10(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2023.2261523
  • Tuesta, V., Hearne, D., & Osorio, C. (2019). Financial inclusion and regional inequality in Latin America. World Development, 118, 1-12.
  • Walujadi, D., Indupurnahayu, I., & Endri, E. (2022). Determinants of income inequality among provinces: panel data evidence from Indonesia. Calitatea, 23(190), 243-250.
  • Yakar, M. (2013). Türkiye’de iller arası net göçlerle sosyo-ekonomik gelişmişlik arasındaki ilişkinin coğrafi ağırlıklı regresyon ile analizi. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 22(1), 27-44.
  • Yüzbaşı, B., & Görür, Ç. (2021). Examining spatial variability in the association between some factors and number of prisoners in Turkey: A gwr analysis. Mugla Journal of Science and Technology, 7(1), 141-148.

AB ÜLKELERİNDE GELİR DAĞILIMININ HETEROJEN BELİRLEYİCİLERİ: GWR'DEN KANITLAR

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 2, 556 - 568, 31.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1653191

Öz

Bu çalışma, 2009-2022 döneminde AB’nin 27 üye ülkesinde gelir dağılımını etkileyen temel ekonomik ve yapısal faktörleri coğrafi ağırlıklı regresyon (GWR) yöntemi ile incelemektedir. GWR, geleneksel regresyon yöntemlerinden farklı olarak mekânsal heterojenlikleri dikkate alarak, gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki belirleyici faktörlerin bölgesel ve yerel düzeydeki değişkenliğini ortaya koymayı mümkün kılmaktadır. Araştırmada, kişi başına düşen gelir, finansal gelişme, kamu harcamaları, enflasyon ve ticari açıklık gibi makroekonomik değişkenlerin gelir dağılımını ölçmede yaygın kullanılan Gini katsayısı üzerindeki etkileri analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma bulguları, gelir eşitsizliğinin belirleyicilerinin ülkeler arasında önemli farklılıklar gösterdiğini vurgulamaktadır. Örneğin, Kuznets eğrisinin varsayılan doğrusal olmayan ilişkisinin tüm Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinde geçerliliğini korumadığı tespit edilmiştir. Finansal gelişmenin ve ticari açıklığın, gelir eşitsizliğini artırıcı etkiler yarattığı ampirik olarak doğrulanmıştır. Buna karşılık, kamu harcamalarının gelir dağılımı üzerindeki etkisi beklenenin altında kalmış ve kamu politikalarının bu alandaki etkinliği ile ilgili önemli soruları gündeme getirmiştir. Enflasyonun gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki etkilerinin ise ülkeler arasında heterojen bir yapı sergilediği belirlenmiştir. Ancak, çalışma dönemi boyunca Euro bölgesinde düşük enflasyon seviyelerinin gelir eşitsizliğini sınırlandırıcı bir işlev gördüğü ortaya konulmuştur. Bu bulgular, gelir adaletini sağlamayı amaçlayan ekonomi politikalarının, ülkelerin kendine özgü sosyo-kültürel, kurumsal ve ekonomik yapıları göz önünde bulundurularak tasarlanması gerektiğini açıkça ortaya koymaktadır. Bölgesel farklılıkların dikkate alınması, politika yapıcılar için hem ulusal hem de Avrupa düzeyinde sürdürülebilir ve adil bir gelir dağılımı hedeflenmesinde kritik bir unsur olarak değerlendirilmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Abay, M. Ç., & Sezgin, S. (2018). Türkiye ve bazı AB ülkelerinde yoksulluk ve gelir dağılımı. Journal of Life Economics, 5(4), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.15637/jlecon.263
  • Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown Business.
  • Acemoglu, D., & Restrepo, P. (2018). Artificial intelligence, automation and work. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Afandi, A., Rantung, V. P., & Marashdeh, H. (2017). Determinants of income inequality. Economic Journal of Emerging Markets, 9(2), 159.
  • Alesina, A., & Ardagna, S. (2010). Large changes in fiscal policy: taxes versus spending. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Afonso, A., Schuknecht, L., & Tanzi, V. (2010). Income distribution determinants and public spending efficiency. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 8(3), 367-389.
  • Anselin L. (2013). Spatial econometrics: methods and models. Springer Science & Business Media.
  • Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., Hanson, G. H., & Song, J. (2014). Trade adjustment: worker-level evidence. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(4), 1799-1860.
  • Awe, A., & Rufus, O. O. (2012). Determinants of income distribution in the Nigeria economy: 1977-2005. International Business and Management, 5(1), 126-137.
  • Beck, T. (2003). Financial and legal institutions and firm size (Vol. 2997). World Bank Publications.
  • Boschma, R., Frenken, K., & van Oort, F. (2015). The evolution of regional innovation systems: a literature review. Regional Studies, 49(9), 1383-1400.
  • Brunsdon, C., Fotheringham, S. & Charlton, M. (1996). Geographically weighted regression: a method for exploring spatial nonstationarity. Geographial Analysis, 28, 281-298.
  • Çapar, U., & Yayla, N. (2019). Türkiye’de bölgelerarası gelir dağılımı yakınsaması: mekansal ekonometrik analiz. Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi, 25, 283-302. https://doi.org/10.18092/ulikidince.578014
  • Duranton, G., & Puga, D. (2004). Micro-foundations of urban growth. Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, 4, 2063-2117.
  • Erkan, B., Şentürk, M., Akbaş, Y. E., & Bayat, T. (2011). Uluslararası ham petrol fiyatlarındaki volatilitenin işsizlik göstergeleri üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye örneği üzerine ampirik bulgular. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2).
  • Fabrizi, E., & Trivisano, C. (2016). Small area estimation of the Gini concentration coefficient. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 99, 223-234.
  • Glaeser, E. L., Kolko, J., & Saiz, A. (2001). Consumer city. Journal of Economic Geography, 1(1), 95-126.
  • Grossman, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1993). Innovation and growth in the global economy. MIT Press.
  • Görür, Ç., & Yüzbaşı, B. (2024). Study of the factors influencing cultural similarity in the post-migration adaptation process in the province of van using the GWR method. Journal of Geography, (48), 137-154.
  • Hailemariam, A., Sakutukwa, T., & Dzhumashev, R. (2021). Long-term determinants of income inequality: evidence from panel data over 1870-2016. Empirical Economics, 61(4), 1935-1958.
  • Khan, M. S., & Senhadji, A. S. (2001). Threshold effects in the relationship between inflation and growth. IMF Staff Papers, 48(1), 1-21.
  • Khajepasha, A. N., & Gkartzios, M. (2024). Spatial analysis of regional income inequality in EU countries. International Planning Studies, 29(2), 105-123. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563475.2023.2299778
  • Kilgarriff, P., & Charlton, M. (2020). A spatial analysis of disposable income in Ireland: a GWR approach. arXiv preprint arXiv:2008.11720. https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.11720
  • Lopez, H., & Perry, G. E. (2008). Inequality in Latin America: determinants and consequences. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, (4504).
  • Lu, B., Charlton, M., Harris, P. & Fotheringham, A.S. (2014). Geographically weighted regression with a non-euclidean distance metric: a case study using hedonic house price data. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 28(4), 660-681.
  • Luptáčik, M., & Nežinský, E. (2020). Measuring income inequalities beyond the gini coefficient. Central European Journal of Operations Research, 28(2), 561-578.
  • Mah, J. S. (2002). The impact of globalization on income distribution: the Korean experience. Applied Economics Letters, 9(15), 1007-1009.
  • Mahmood, S., & Noor, Z. M. (2014). Human capital and income inequality in developing countries: new evidence using the gini coefficient. Journal of Entrepreneurship & Business, 2(1).
  • Mehrara, M., & Mohammadian, M. (2015). The determinants of gini coefficient in Iran based on bayesian model averaging. Hyperion Econ J, 3, 20-28.
  • Munir, K., & Sultan, M. (2017). Macroeconomic determinants of income inequality in India and Pakistan. Theoretical & Applied Economics, 24(4).
  • Nadal, J. R., Font, A. R., & Rossello, A. S. (2004). The economic determinants of seasonal patterns. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 697-711.
  • Odedokun, M. O., & Round, J. I. (2001). Determinants of income inequality and its effects on economic growth: evidence from African countries (No. 2001/103). WIDER Discussion Paper. OECD. (2011). Regions and innovation policy. OECD Publishing.
  • Perugini, C., & Martino, G. (2008). Income inequality within European regions: determinants and effects on growth. Review of Income and Wealth, 54(3), 373-406.
  • Rajan, R. G. (2010). Fault lines: how hidden fractures still threaten the world economy. Princeton University Press.
  • Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Tselios, V. (2009). Education and income inequality in the regions of the European Union. Journal of Regional Science, 49(3), 411-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2009.00625.x
  • Sakarya, A., & İbişoğlu, Ç. (2015). Türkiye’de illerin sosyo-ekonomik gelişmişlik endeksinin coğrafi ağırlıklı regresyon modeli ile analizi. Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi, 32, 211-238. https://doi.org/10.14781/mcd.63200
  • Strat, V. A., & Popovici, O. C. (2015). FDI convergence versus real and structural convergence at the EU level. An approach based on the GINI coefficient. Economia. Seria Management, 18(1), 150-162.
  • Şahbaz, A., Adıgüzel, U., Bayat, T., & Kayhan, S. (2014). Relationship between oil prices and exchange rates: the case of Romania. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research/Academy of Economic Studies, 48(2), 245-256.
  • Taşar Yıldırım, T., Taşar, İ. & Özek, Y. (2025). The impact of education and health expenditures on economic growth in fragile five economies. İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (INIJOSS), 14(1), 354-369. https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1676008
  • Tselios, V., & Roinioti, A. (2023). The geographical dimension of income inequality in Greece: evolution and the ‘turning point’ after the economic crisis. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 10(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2023.2261523
  • Tuesta, V., Hearne, D., & Osorio, C. (2019). Financial inclusion and regional inequality in Latin America. World Development, 118, 1-12.
  • Walujadi, D., Indupurnahayu, I., & Endri, E. (2022). Determinants of income inequality among provinces: panel data evidence from Indonesia. Calitatea, 23(190), 243-250.
  • Yakar, M. (2013). Türkiye’de iller arası net göçlerle sosyo-ekonomik gelişmişlik arasındaki ilişkinin coğrafi ağırlıklı regresyon ile analizi. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 22(1), 27-44.
  • Yüzbaşı, B., & Görür, Ç. (2021). Examining spatial variability in the association between some factors and number of prisoners in Turkey: A gwr analysis. Mugla Journal of Science and Technology, 7(1), 141-148.
Toplam 44 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Büyüme
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Yunus Gülcü 0000-0002-8464-4721

Gönderilme Tarihi 7 Mart 2025
Kabul Tarihi 2 Mayıs 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Aralık 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 14 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Gülcü, Y. (2025). HETEROGENEOUS DETERMINANTS OF INCOME DISTRIBUTION IN EU COUNTRIES: EVIDENCE FROM THE GWR. İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(2), 556-568. https://doi.org/10.54282/inijoss.1653191