Araştırma Makalesi
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Güney Afrika Sinemasının Özgürleşmesi: Apartheid Dönemi ve Sonrası

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 13, 358 - 380, 25.12.2020

Öz

Güney Afrika’da 1948 yılında başlayan apartheid rejimi 27 Nisan 1994 yılında gerçekleştirilen ülkenin ilk ve çok partili demokratik seçimlerine kadar hâkim yönetim anlayışı olmuştur. Apartheid rejimi hükümetleri medyayı kendi kontrolleri altında tutmak için hem yasalardan hem de idari kontrol gücünden yararlanmıştır. Daniel François Malan ile başlayan ve 1960’larda zirveye ulaşan apartheid rejimi basını ve tüm medyayı kontrol altına almıştır. Afrikaanca dilinde yayın yapan basın kuruluşları rejimin sözcüsü gibi hareket ederken, muhalif İngilizce basın sansüre maruz bırakılmıştır. Radyo ve televizyon sektörleri de Güney Afrika Yayın Kurumu (South African Broadcasting Corporation – SABC) tarafından kontrol edilmiş ve kurum tam anlamıyla 1980’lerin ikinci yarısından itibaren başlayacak olan liberalleşme dalgasına kadar televizyon ve radyo alanında ülkedeki tekel konumunu korumuştur. Sinemada durum bundan farklı değildir. A Şeması ve B Şeması sübvansiyonlarıyla apartheid hükümetleri sinema sektörünü kontrol etmiş ve filmlerin otosansüre bağlı olmasını sağlamıştır. Apartheid ideolojisine aykırı filmlerin veya eleştirel filmlerin özgür bir şekilde halka gösterilmesi mümkün olmamıştır. Örneğin, eleştirel bir filmin yönetmeni olan Gibson Kente, How Long (1976) filminin içeriği yüzünden tutuklanmıştır. 1980 – 1990 döneminde üçüncü sinema ve eleştirel filmlerin yükselişe geçmesi ülkenin içinde bulunduğu siyasal ortamla direkt olarak bağlantılıdır. Apartheid rejiminin zayıflaması üzerine üçüncü kuşak sinema ve eleştirel filmler mevcut rejime karşı çok önemli bir sanat aracı olarak karşı durmuştur. Sistem ve hükümet eleştirisi yapmışlardır. Eleştirel filmler ve üçüncü sinema apartheid rejiminin çözülme yıllarında demokrasi mücadelesini destekler nitelikte apartheid eleştirisi yapmışlardır. Bu kuşağın en önemli özelliği rejim ve sistem eleştirisi yapmasıdır.
Sinema alanına özgürlüğü getiren iki husus vardır. Birincisi, Güney Afrika’nın 1980’lerden itibaren büyük bir yıkıma sebep olabilecek bir iç savaşa doğru sürüklenmesidir. Bundan çekinen apartheid hükümetleri sadece sinemayı değil, basın ve televizyon olmak üzere birçok medya alanını kısmen de olsa özgürleştirmiştir. Baskıları hafifletmiş ve muhalif gazetelerin yayınlarına izin verilmiştir. Bu ortamdan faydalanan yönetmen ve yapımcılar 1980 – 1990 döneminde üçüncü sinema kuşağını ve eleştirel filmleri beyaz perdeye aktarmışlardır. Sinema alanına özgürlüğü getiren ikinci ve en önemli husus siyasal dönüşümdür. Siyasal dönüşümün neticesinde demokrasiye geçilmesinin temel sebepleri uluslararası baskı, Güney Afrika’ya uygulanan ambargolar, siyahların silahlı mücadelesi ve ülkenin uluslararası toplumdan izole edilmesidir. Sinema apartheid döneminde hükümetlerin baskısı altındayken siyasal dönüşümden sonra özgürlük ortamına kavuşmuştur. Siyasal dönüşümün en önemli ayağı olan anayasa çalışmaları neticesinde 1996 Anayasası yapılmıştır. Bu anayasada medya ve ifade özgürlüğü garanti altına alınmıştır. İfade özgürlüğünün anayasal garanti altına alınması ırksal çeşitliliği ve demokrasisi sayesinde 2000’lerin başında gökkuşağı ulusu olarak nitelenen Güney Afrika’da sinemacıların özgür bir şekilde sanatını icra etmesine olanak tanımıştır. Siyahlar sinemada ayrıma ve ırksal kategorizasyona bağlı olmadan özgür bir şekilde sanatçı ve yapımcı olarak faaliyet göstermeye başlamışlar ve eleştirel yönü kuvvetli filmler çekebilmişlerdir.

Kaynakça

  • Bakari Imruh ve Mbye Cham, (1996). African Experiences of Cinema, London: British Film Institute, Aktaran: Moyer-Duncan.
  • BAMPFA, Mapantsula, https://bampfa.org/event/mapantsula-1 [Erişim: 25 Haziran 2020].
  • Benneyworth Garth (2017). ‘’Rolling up Rivonia: 1962–1963’’, South African Historical Journal, Vol.69, No.3, 404–417.
  • Buchsbaum Jonathan, (2001). ‘’A Closer Look at Third Cinema’’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Cilt.21, Sayı.2, 153-166.
  • Buntman Fran Lisa (2003). Robben Island and Prisoner Resistance to Apartheid, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Clarno Andy ve Martin J. Murray, (2013). ‘’Policing in Johannesburg after apartheid’’, Social Dynamics, Cilt.39, Sayı.2, 210–227.
  • Davies Matt, (1990). ''Mapantsula and the Culture of Resistance in South Africa'', Africa Today, Cilt.37, Sayı.1, 97-99.
  • Dovey Lindiwe ve Angela Impey, (2010). ‘’African Jim: sound, politics, and pleasure in early ‘black’ South African cinema’’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, Cilt.22, Sayı.1, 57–73.
  • Evans Martha (2017). Speeches that Shaped South Africa: From Malan to Malema, Cape Town: Penguin Books.
  • Grainge Paul, Mark Jancovich ve Sharon Monteith, (2012). Film Histories: An Introduction and Reader, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  • Guelke Adrian (2005). Rethinking the Rise and Fall of Apartheid, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Moyer-Duncan Cara, (2011). ‘’New Directions, No Audiences’’, Critical Interventions, Cilt.5, Sayı.1, 64-80.
  • Paleker Gairoonisa, ‘’Creating a ‘black film industry’: State intervention and films for African audiences in South Africa, 1956-1990’’, (University of Cape Town, the Department of Historical Studies, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, 2009).
  • Paleker, Gairoonisa, (2010). ‘’The B-Scheme subsidy and the ‘black film industry’ in apartheid South Africa, 1972–1990’’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, Cilt.22, Sayı.1, 91–104.
  • Paleker Gairoonisa, (2014). ‘’The State, Citizens and Control: Film and African Audiences in South Africa, 1910–1948’’, Journal of Southern African Studies, Cilt.40, Sayı.2, 309–323.
  • Parliament of South Africa, Population Registration Act, Kanun Numarası: 30, Kanun Yılı: 1950.
  • Parliament of South Africa, Unlawful Organizations Act, Kanun Numarası: 34, Kanun Yılı: 1960.
  • Parliament of South Africa, the National Film and Video Foundation Act, Kanun Numarası: 73, Kanun Yılı: 1997.
  • Poyraz Emel ve Melih Dinçer, (2016). ‘’Küreselleşen Dünyada Türkiye’nin Kamu Diplomasisi Faaliyetleri’’, Intermedia International e-Journal, 3(1), 30-48.
  • The National Film and Video Foundation, Main Objectives, http://nfvf.co.za/home/index.php?ipkContentID=233&ipkMenuID=74 [Erişim: 4 Ağustos 2019].
  • The National Film and Video Foundation, Economic Impact of the South African Film Industry.
  • The National Film and Video Foundation, Annual Box Office Report 2018.
  • Tomaselli Keyan, (2014). The Cinema of Apartheid: Race and Class in South African Film, Oxon: Routledge.
  • Willemen Paul, (2013). ‘’Historical memorandum: notions of Third Cinema’’, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Cilt.14, Sayı.1, 94–95.

The Liberation of South African Cinema: Apartheid Period and Afterwards

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 13, 358 - 380, 25.12.2020

Öz

In 1948, National Party won the elections under the leadership of Daniel François Malan. François Malan was the founder of apartheid regime in South Africa. He wanted to divide the country into different races. In this system, black people were isolated from all segments of society and also government of the country. Afrikaans government exploited natural resources of the country and made black people slave and ordinary workers. African National Congress and blacks were organized by Nelson Mandela and his revolutionary friends to topple the regime. In 1980s and 1990s, apartheid regime was weakened by international isolation, embargoes, economic recession, and armed attacks of African National Congress because of its racist stance. Upon this desperate situation, President of South Africa of that time Frederik Willem de Klerk started the era of political transformation by releasing Nelson Mandela and political prisoners from jail and opening the doors for negotiations. After hard negotiations between governing National Party and African National Congress, on 27 April 1994, African National Congress won the elections and Nelson Mandela was elected as the President of South Africa. In 1996, a new constitution was written. With this constitution, freedom of expression and media was taken under the guarantee of the constitution. This environment freed cinema and other types of media from apartheid regime’s fences. Since that time, South Africa has been called the rainbow nation for its various races, languages, and religions.
During apartheid regime, cinema and other types of media were controlled by apartheid governments and Afrikaans people. Afrikaans press was the mouthpiece of the governing National Party. English press was censored by apartheid governments and bureaucrats. Critical press and films were censored. South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), which was established in 1936 with an official act, has been the state monopoly of radio and television until the mid-1980s. Also, SABC was the mouthpiece of apartheid governments. Cinema also has been censored until the mid-1980s. Apartheid governments created and used A Scheme and B Scheme Subsidies to control cinema sector. While A Scheme Subsidy was for English and Afrikaans films, B Scheme Subsidy was created for black films including black actors and languages. Films, which benefited from these subsidies, couldn’t become critical of apartheid governments. Critical films were censored and maybe banned according to their degrees. For instance, Gibson Kente, an important director of apartheid era, was arrested because of his film called How Long (1976) and its critical context. However, political transformation, which was born because of economic recession, international isolation and armed struggle of African National Congress, changed this desperate situation.
In 1980s and 1990s, third cinema and critical films developed in South African cinema. These films and third cinema criticized the system of apartheid and governments. Also, father figure of state was criticized because of its brutal killings. These films were My Country My Hat (1983), Mathata (1984), Mapantsula (1988), the Chicken Man (1990), and Midnite Rush (1990). These cinema milestones criticized apartheid regime and the system. Thanks to political transformation, which commenced in the late-1980s by National Party and African National Congress, South African cinema has seen an important freedom environment to produce films until today. While apartheid regime was preventing black people from being actors and directors of films, in new rainbow nation black people can reach these positions while not being isolated by the whites of society. Ramadan Suleman, Khalo Matabane, Teddy Mattera, Zola Maseko, Ntshavheni Wa Luruli, John Kani, and Madoda Ncayiyana are important actors and directors of the new period. Moreover, in this new period black people can reach the presidency of South Africa. After apartheid, the National Film and Video Foundation was founded to equally support film directors and actors whatever their races or religions. Today, South African cinema provides equal opportunities for blacks and whites. Blacks can take reasonable share from cinema sector today.

Kaynakça

  • Bakari Imruh ve Mbye Cham, (1996). African Experiences of Cinema, London: British Film Institute, Aktaran: Moyer-Duncan.
  • BAMPFA, Mapantsula, https://bampfa.org/event/mapantsula-1 [Erişim: 25 Haziran 2020].
  • Benneyworth Garth (2017). ‘’Rolling up Rivonia: 1962–1963’’, South African Historical Journal, Vol.69, No.3, 404–417.
  • Buchsbaum Jonathan, (2001). ‘’A Closer Look at Third Cinema’’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Cilt.21, Sayı.2, 153-166.
  • Buntman Fran Lisa (2003). Robben Island and Prisoner Resistance to Apartheid, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Clarno Andy ve Martin J. Murray, (2013). ‘’Policing in Johannesburg after apartheid’’, Social Dynamics, Cilt.39, Sayı.2, 210–227.
  • Davies Matt, (1990). ''Mapantsula and the Culture of Resistance in South Africa'', Africa Today, Cilt.37, Sayı.1, 97-99.
  • Dovey Lindiwe ve Angela Impey, (2010). ‘’African Jim: sound, politics, and pleasure in early ‘black’ South African cinema’’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, Cilt.22, Sayı.1, 57–73.
  • Evans Martha (2017). Speeches that Shaped South Africa: From Malan to Malema, Cape Town: Penguin Books.
  • Grainge Paul, Mark Jancovich ve Sharon Monteith, (2012). Film Histories: An Introduction and Reader, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  • Guelke Adrian (2005). Rethinking the Rise and Fall of Apartheid, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Moyer-Duncan Cara, (2011). ‘’New Directions, No Audiences’’, Critical Interventions, Cilt.5, Sayı.1, 64-80.
  • Paleker Gairoonisa, ‘’Creating a ‘black film industry’: State intervention and films for African audiences in South Africa, 1956-1990’’, (University of Cape Town, the Department of Historical Studies, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, 2009).
  • Paleker, Gairoonisa, (2010). ‘’The B-Scheme subsidy and the ‘black film industry’ in apartheid South Africa, 1972–1990’’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, Cilt.22, Sayı.1, 91–104.
  • Paleker Gairoonisa, (2014). ‘’The State, Citizens and Control: Film and African Audiences in South Africa, 1910–1948’’, Journal of Southern African Studies, Cilt.40, Sayı.2, 309–323.
  • Parliament of South Africa, Population Registration Act, Kanun Numarası: 30, Kanun Yılı: 1950.
  • Parliament of South Africa, Unlawful Organizations Act, Kanun Numarası: 34, Kanun Yılı: 1960.
  • Parliament of South Africa, the National Film and Video Foundation Act, Kanun Numarası: 73, Kanun Yılı: 1997.
  • Poyraz Emel ve Melih Dinçer, (2016). ‘’Küreselleşen Dünyada Türkiye’nin Kamu Diplomasisi Faaliyetleri’’, Intermedia International e-Journal, 3(1), 30-48.
  • The National Film and Video Foundation, Main Objectives, http://nfvf.co.za/home/index.php?ipkContentID=233&ipkMenuID=74 [Erişim: 4 Ağustos 2019].
  • The National Film and Video Foundation, Economic Impact of the South African Film Industry.
  • The National Film and Video Foundation, Annual Box Office Report 2018.
  • Tomaselli Keyan, (2014). The Cinema of Apartheid: Race and Class in South African Film, Oxon: Routledge.
  • Willemen Paul, (2013). ‘’Historical memorandum: notions of Third Cinema’’, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Cilt.14, Sayı.1, 94–95.
Toplam 24 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular İletişim ve Medya Çalışmaları
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Melih Dinçer 0000-0003-3079-1512

Yayımlanma Tarihi 25 Aralık 2020
Gönderilme Tarihi 31 Ekim 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2020 Cilt: 7 Sayı: 13

Kaynak Göster

APA Dinçer, M. (2020). Güney Afrika Sinemasının Özgürleşmesi: Apartheid Dönemi ve Sonrası. Intermedia International E-Journal, 7(13), 358-380.

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