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A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports

Cilt: 15 Sayı: 2 30 Haziran 2026
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A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports

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This study examines epidemiological data reported by European Union member states during the COVID-19 pandemic using Benford’s Law, aiming to provide empirical insights into data transparency during extraordinary periods. The main objective is assessing the reliability of data reporting practices in crisis situations by analyzing the conformity of daily reported COVID-19 cases and deaths with the Benford distribution. The study uses publicly available datasets allowing international comparison, covering the period from each country’s first reported case until the end of 2021. Data was collected daily from the World Health Organization's official database. To identify statistical irregularities, the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) and unit-square area measures were calculated, alongside comparative cross-country analyses. Additionally, Benford conformity results were compared with Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) scores to examine the relationship between normatively perceived transparency and actual reporting practices. Finally, bootstrap linear regression in a hierarchical design was employed to examine the link between data transparency and institutional governance.

Findings indicate that countries with higher institutional reputation and perceived transparency exhibit greater potential for statistical irregularities in daily case reporting during the pandemic. Conversely, countries with lower CPI scores tend to show better conformity with the Benford distribution. Regarding daily death reporting, no statistically significant differences in conformity were found among countries with varying index scores. This suggests data production under crisis conditions—except for absolute situations like death—may be influenced by political pressures, testing strategies, reporting schedules, and institutional capacity differences. In conclusion, the study emphasizes transparency cannot be explained solely by institutional capacity; normative commitment, political will, crisis management culture, and data governance practices play a decisive role. These findings contribute comparative empirical evidence to the health management literature, providing an evidence-based evaluation framework for policymakers and essential guidance for preparedness during future crises.  

Anahtar Kelimeler

Benford Law, Corruption Perceptions Index, Covid-19, European Union, Transparency

Etik Beyan

This is a retrospective study and therefore, no ethical approval is required.

Kaynakça

  1. Balashov, V. S., Yan, Y., & Zhu, X. (2021). Using the Newcomb-Benford law to study the association between a country’s COVID-19 reporting accuracy and its development. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 22914. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02367-z
  2. Bauhr, M., & Grimes, M. (2014). Indignation or Resignation: The Implications of Transparency for Societal Accountability. Governance, 27(2), 291–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12033
  3. Benford, F. (1938). The law of anomalous numbers. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 78(4), 551–572.
  4. Campolieti, M. (2022). COVID-19 deaths in the USA: Benford’s law and under-reporting. Journal of Public Health, 44(2), e268–e271. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab161
  5. Carmo, C. R. S., Nunes, F. C., & Caneppele, F. de L. (2023). The limits of conformity analysis under the Newcomb-Benford law and the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Biometrics, 41(3), 234–248. https://doi.org/10.28951/bjb.v41i3.626
  6. Farhadi, N. (2021). Can we rely on COVID-19 data? An assessment of data from over 200 countries worldwide. Science Progress, 104(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/00368504211021232
  7. Figueiredo Filho, D., Silva, L., & Medeiros, H. (2022). “Won’t get fooled again”: statistical fault detection in COVID-19 Latin American data. Globalization and Health, 18(1), 105. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-022-00899-1
  8. Finnemore, M., & Sikkink, K. (1998). International norm dynamics and political change. International Organization, 52(4), 887–917.
  9. Greer, S. L., King, E. J., da Fonseca, E. M., & Peralta-Santos, A. (2020). The comparative politics of COVID-19: The need to understand government responses. Global Public Health, 15(9), 1413–1416. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1783340
  10. Idrovo, A. J., & Manrique-Hernández, E. F. (2020). Data Quality of Chinese Surveillance of COVID-19: Objective Analysis Based on WHO’s Situation Reports. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health, 32(4), 165–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539520927265

Kaynak Göster

APA
Değerli, H., Tutar, Y. N., & Ankara, H. G. (2026). A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(2), 908-923. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.1855542
AMA
1.Değerli H, Tutar YN, Ankara HG. A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports. itobiad. 2026;15(2):908-923. doi:10.15869/itobiad.1855542
Chicago
Değerli, Hakan, Yasemin Necmiye Tutar, ve Hasan Giray Ankara. 2026. “A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports”. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi 15 (2): 908-23. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.1855542.
EndNote
Değerli H, Tutar YN, Ankara HG (01 Haziran 2026) A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi 15 2 908–923.
IEEE
[1]H. Değerli, Y. N. Tutar, ve H. G. Ankara, “A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports”, itobiad, c. 15, sy 2, ss. 908–923, Haz. 2026, doi: 10.15869/itobiad.1855542.
ISNAD
Değerli, Hakan - Tutar, Yasemin Necmiye - Ankara, Hasan Giray. “A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports”. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi 15/2 (01 Haziran 2026): 908-923. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.1855542.
JAMA
1.Değerli H, Tutar YN, Ankara HG. A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports. itobiad. 2026;15:908–923.
MLA
Değerli, Hakan, vd. “A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports”. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, c. 15, sy 2, Haziran 2026, ss. 908-23, doi:10.15869/itobiad.1855542.
Vancouver
1.Hakan Değerli, Yasemin Necmiye Tutar, Hasan Giray Ankara. A Benford Reveal of Who Is Who: The Cross Validation of Transparency for Covid-19 Reports. itobiad. 01 Haziran 2026;15(2):908-23. doi:10.15869/itobiad.1855542