Kazakhstan in Africa: An Economic Diplomacy within Distant Neighborhood Foreign Policy

Yıl 2021, , 1251 - 1273, 30.06.2021

Volkan İpek , Gulnara Dadayabeva Aigul Adibayeva

https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.869871

Öz

Since the fifteenth century, Africa has always been subject to global attention. European states benefitted from the lands and labor force in Africa during the Atlantic slave trade and colonialism periods. Individuals from different tribes in Africa were forced to leave their homelands in return for forced labor in chiefly the American continent. Besides, European states partitioned the lands of Africa within colonialism that was officially launched in the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. In addition to their ongoing interests in Africa upon the launch of independence movements by the mid-1950s, states out of Europe such as the United States of America (USA), the Soviet Union, India, China, and Brazil have approached Africa for political and ideological reasons. In terms of political reasons, Africa has been regarded as one of the main venues to construct a sphere of influence and to position around these states’ national interests. In terms of ideological reasons, on the other hand, the Soviet Union and the USA tried to support African states in order to provide sustainable protection from each other during the Cold War. Once it appeared that this involvement brought economic gains thereafter, Africa has attracted many other states. Among them is Kazakhstan, who declared an opening to African states by the 2050 Strategy which was announced in 2012. Under the guidance of not only the Kazakh state but also the Kazakh private enterprises, Kazakhstan has been implementing an economic opening to Africa. Accordingly, it is stated in the article that Kazakhstan’s opening to Africa by the 2050 Strategy is an example of how economic diplomacy within the Kazakh distant neighborhood foreign policy has been implemented. In this context, this economic dimension between Kazakhstan and Africa through economic cooperation, investment and trade on the basis of a theoretical debate about economic diplomacy has been tried to show.  

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kazakhstan, Africa, Economic Diplomacy, Near Neighborhood Foreign Policy, Far Neighborhood Foreign Policy

Teşekkür

Yeditepe University and KIMEP University

Afrika’da Kazakistan: Uzak Komşuluk Dış Politikası İçinde Bir Ekonomik Diplomasi

Öz

On beşinci yüzyıldan beri Afrika küresel bir ilginin öznesi durumundadır. Bu bağlamda Avrupalı devletler Atlantik Köle Ticareti döneminde Afrika’nın iş gücünden, sömürgecilik döneminde ise Afrika’nın topraklarından kendi çıkarları adına yararlanmışlardır. Atlantik Köle Ticareti boyunca Afrika’daki halkların bireyleri zor kullanarak yerlerinden edilmiş, çalıştırılmak için özellikle Amerika kıtasına gönderilmişlerdir. Bunun yanında Avrupalı devletler 1884-85 Berlin Konferansı’nda resmileştirdikleri sömürgecilik yönetimlerini Afrika topraklarını kendi aralarında paylaşarak gerçekleştirmişlerdir. 1950’li yılların ortalarında başlayan bağımsızlık hareketlerinde bile devam eden bu ilginin üzerine Avrupa devletlerinin dışında kalan Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Sovyetler Birliği, Hindistan, Çin, Rusya ve Brezilya gibi devletler de siyasi ve ideolojik birtakım nedenlerle Afrika’ya yakınlık duymaya başlamışlardır. Siyasi nedenler olarak Afrika ülkeleri üzerinde nüfuz elde etmek ve onları kendi çıkarları çevresinde konumlandırmak örnek gösterilebilir. İdeolojik nedenler olarak ise özellikle Soğuk Savaş sırasındaki sosyalizm/kapitalizm rekabeti içinde Afrika’dan taraftar toplama örnek gösterilebilir. Gerek Sovyetler Birliği gerekse Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Soğuk Savaş döneminde Afrika ülkelerini birbirlerine karşı bir destek bulmak amacıyla desteklemiştir. Bu ilginin daha sonradan söz konusu devletlere ekonomik çıkarlar sağladığı görüldüğünde ise Afrika diğer devletleri de kendine çekmiştir. Bunlardan biri 2012 yılında 2050 Stratejisini ilan ederek Afrika’ya açılan Kazakistan’dır. Elde edilen ve makalede gösterilen bulgulara göre sadece Kazak devletinin değil, aynı zamanda Kazak şirketlerinin de rehberliğinde gerçekleşen Kazakistan’ın Afrika ülkelerine açılımında ekonomik boyut temel alınmıştır. Bu bağlamda makale Kazakistan’ın 2050 Stratejisi’yle başlayan Afrika açılımının Kazak devletinin uzak komşuluk dış politikası içindeki ekonomik diplomasisinin bir uygulaması olduğunu vurgulamaktadır. Buna göre makale Kazakistan’ın Afrika ile 2012 yılından beri süregelen ilişkisini ekonomik diplomasi kuramında açıklayıp bu ilişkiyi ekonomik iş birliği, yatırımlar ve ticaret başlıklarında incelemektedir. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kazakistan, Afrika, Ekonomik Diplomasi, Yakın Komşuluk Dış Politikası, Uzak Komşuluk Dış Politikası

Kaynakça

• Aitzhanova, A., Katsu, S., Linn, J.& Yezhov, V. (2014, June 9). Kazakhstan 2050: Toward a Modern Society for All, Emerging Markets Forum: Economic diplomacy is the key part of our foreign policy. Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2014/06/economic-diplomacy-key-part-foreign-policy/.
• Ang, I. (2010). Australia-China and Asian Regionalism: Navigating Distant Proximity, Amerasia Journal, 36(2): 127-40
• Astana economic forum to feature sessions on Africa. (2015, 18 May). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2015/05/astana-economic-forum-to-feature-sessions-on-africa-kazaid/.
• Bayne, N.& Woolcock, S. (2007). The New Economic Diplomacy. London: Ashgate.
• Berridge, G. (2005). Diplomacy: Theory and Practice. 3rd edition. Houndmills: Palgrave.
• Bredow, Wilfried von. (1997). Dragged along by globalization, slowed down by history: The framework, objectives and comprehension problems of German foreign policy.
• Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, 5 (2),137-50.
• Chattopadhyay, P. (2011). The Politics of India’s Neighborhood Policy in South Asia. South Asian Survey, 18(1): 93-108
• Collins, K. (2009). Economic and Security Regionalism among Patrimonial Authoritarian regimes: The case of Central Asia. Europe-Asia Studies, 61 (2), 249-81.
• Cooper, R.N. (1972,1973). Trade Policy is Foreign Policy. Foreign Policy, 9, 18-36.
• Dangerfield, M. (2000). Subregional Economic Cooperation in Central and Eastern Europe: The Political Economy of CEFTA, New York: Edward Algin Publishing.
• Fawcett, L. (2005) Regionalism from an Historical Perspective. In Ferrell, M., Hettne, B., and van Langenhove, L. (2010). Global Politics of Regionalism. Pluto Press Fawcett.
• Fawn, R. (2009). Regions and their study: Wherefrom, What for and Where to. Review of International Studies, 35, 5-34.
• Fishlow, A. & Haggard, S. (1992). The US and the Regionalization of the World Economy, Paris: OECD Development Center Research Project on globalization and Regionalization.
• Garten, J. E. (1997) Business and Foreign Policy. Foreign Affairs, 76 (3) 67-79.
• Hill, C. (2003). What is to be Done? Foreign Policy as a site for political action, International Affairs, 79 (2), 233-255.
• Ipek, P. (2007). The role of oil and gas in Kazakhstan’s foreign policy: Looking East or West? Europe-Asia Studies, 59(7), 1179-99.
• Jönsson, C. & Hall, M. (2005). Essence of Diplomacy. Houndmills: Palgrave.
• Kazakh goal to continue assisting Africa. (2016 February 2). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2016/02/kazakh-goal-to-continue-assisting-africa/.
• Kazakh goal to continue assisting Africa. (n.d.) Kazakhstanun. Retrieved from http://kazakhstanun.com/kazakh-goal-to-continue-assisting-africa/.
• Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy. (2014). Retrieved from https://kazakhstan2050.com/.
• Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy. (2014). http://mfa.gov.kz/en/roma/content-view/strategia-kazahst an-2050-14.
• Kazakhstan and Africa step up South-South development exchange. (2017, November 15). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakhstan-and-africa-step-up-south-south-development-exchange/.
• Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan agree to bring trade turnover by 1 billion USD in 2020. (2019, July 19). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2019/07/kazakhstan-kyrgyzstan-agree-to-bring-trade-turnover-by-1-billion-in-2020/.
• Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan signed strategic partnership agreement and border accord. (2017, April 20). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2017/04/kazakhstan-turkmenistan-sign-strategic-partnership-agreement-borderaccord/#:~:text=Kazakh% 20and%20Turkmen%20people%20are,of%20Kazakhstan%20in%20the%20region.
• Kazakhstan eyes to invest in Africa. (2018, September 20) Azernews. https://www.azernews.az/region/137825.html.
• Kazakhstan is opening itself to Africa. (2015, May 27). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2015/05/kazakhstan-opening-itself-to-africa/
• Kazakhstan opens its doors to Africa. (2016 May 20). San Diego Union. Retrieved from https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/en-espanol/sdhoy-kazakhstan-opens-its-doors-to-africa-2016may20-story.html.
• Kazakhstan Rwanda needs direct flights (2019, October 2). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2019/10/kazakhstan-rwanda-need-direct-flights-that-can-strengthen-bilateral-relations-through-trade-industry-says-envoy/
• Kazakhstan to Invest in Zimbabwe Space Program. (2019, January 21). Africa News. Retrieved from https://africanews.space/kazakhstan-to-invest-in-zimbabwe-space-program/.
• Kazakhstan-EU Trade relations. (2020, November 2020). European Union. https:// ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/countries/kazakhstan/
• Kleinberg, K.B.& Fordham, B. (2010). Trade and Foreign Policy Attitudes. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 54 (5), 687-714.
• Kurmanguzhin, R. (2016). Kazakhstan and the EU: From Cooperation strategy to new agreement on the advanced partnership. Comparative Politics Journal Russia, 7(1), 106-15.
• Lee, D.& Hocking, B. (2010). Economic Diplomacy. In Denmark, R. (ed.) The International Studies Encyclopedia. Wiley Blackwell.
• Linn, J.F. (2014). Kazakhstan 2050: Exploring an Ambitious Vision. Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies, 6(3),283-300.
• Malyshev, D. & Bainazarova, E. (2016). Russia and Kazakhstan: Mutually different interests for regional leadership in The Regional Security Puzzle around Afghanistan: Bordering Practices in Central Asia and Beyond. Rytövuori-Apunen (eds). Verlag Barbara Budrich.
• Mansfield, E. & Miller, H.V. (2009). The New Wave of Regionalism. International Organization, 53 (3), 589-627.
• Morgenthau, H. (1993). Politics Among Nations: Struggle for Peace and Power, New York: McGraw-Hill
• Morocco’s first Ambassador focuses on political dialogue in economic relations. (2017, July 25). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2017/07/moroccos-first-ambassador-to-kazakhstan-focuses-on-political-dialogue-economic-relations/
• Müller, M. (2015). Analytical Approach: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Foreign Policy. A Spectre is Haunting Arabia, Edition Politik.
• Nuechterlein, D.E. (1976). National Interests and Foreign Policy: Conceptual Framework for Analysis and Decision Making, British Journal of International Studies, 2(3): 246-66
• Rana, K.S. (2004). Economic Diplomacy in India: A Practitioner Perspective. International Studies Perspectives, 5(1), 66-70.
• Saner, R. & Yiu,L . (2003). International Economic Diplomacy: Mutations in Post-Modern Times. Discussion Papers in Diplomacy. The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’.
• Schulz, M., Söderbraum, F. & Öjendal, J. (2001). Key Issues in the New Regionalism. In Hettne, B., Inotai, A.& Sunkels, O.(ed.). Comparing Regionalisms: Implications for Global Development. Bangstoke: Palgrave.
• Snyder, G.H. (1997). Alliance Politics, Ithaca: Cornell University Press
• Solomon, A.M. (1969). Administration of a Multipurpose Economic Diplomacy. Public Administration Review, 23 (6) ,585-92.
• South African official promotes business (2014, November 18). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/south-african-official-promotes-business-people-people-connections-astana/.
• Strategic partnership between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia (2019, April 05). Astana Times. Retrieved from https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/strategic-partnership-between-uzbekistan-and-kazakhstan-in-context-of-region-wide-development-of-central-asia/#:~:text=Kazakhstan%20has%20a%20firm%20position, technical%2C%20cultural%20and%20humanitarian%20areas.
• Tobler, W. (1970). A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in Detroit Region. Economic Geography, 46, 234-240.
• Trading Economics Kazakhstan. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://tradingeconomics.com/kazakhs tan/indicators.
• Tubilewics,C . (2004). Breaking the Ice: The Origins of Taiwan’s Economic Diplomacy towards the Soviet Union and its European Allies. Europe-Asia Studies, 56 (6), 891-906.
• Wallace, W. (1991). Foreign Policy and National Identity in the UK, International Affairs, 67(1): 65-80
• Waltz, K. (1979). Theory of International Politics, New York: Mc Graw-Hill
• Wang, K. Q. (1993). Recent economic diplomacy in China: Political alignment in a changing world order. Asian Survey, 33 (6), 625-41.
• Watson, A. (1982). Diplomacy: The Dialogue Between States. London: Routledge.
• Weitz, R. (2014). Assessing Kazakhstan’s Revised National Development Strategy." The Central Asia-Caucasus, 17 (4), 14-18.
• Wright, Q. (1930). Foreign Policy. American Journal of Sociology, 35 (6), 910-922.
• Zhukov, Y. & Stewart, B, (2013). Choosing your Neighbors: Networks of Diffusion in International Relations. International Studies Quarterly, 57 (2), 271-287.