Kültürel, Sosyal, Duygusal ve Bilişsel Açılardan Türkiye’de Rüşvet Olgusu

Öz

Bu makale Türkiye’de rüşvet olgusunu kültürel, sosyal, duygusal ve bilişsel açılardan etnografik metodları kullanarak açıklamayı hedeflemektedir. Rüşvetin ekonomik, hukuki ve siyasi boyutu kadar psikolojik ve sosyal psikoloji boyutu mevcut. Sosyal psikolojik unsurlar, itaat ve uygunluk kavramına bağlı olarak rüşvet işleminde çok güçlüdür. İnsanlar vicdanlarını rahatlamak için kullandıkları sebepler başkalarının da böyle davrandığı yönündeki inaçlarıdır. Daha önceki çalışmalar anketlere dayalıdır. Halbu ki, rüşvet hadisesindeki gerçek davranış ve deneyimleri yansıtmamaktadır. Bu açıdan rüşvet konusundaki ilk etnografik akademik araştırmadır. Etnografik araştırmada, farklı alanlarda rüşvet veren kişilerle derin duygusal, kültürel, sosyal ve bilişsel deneyimlerini ortaya koymaktadır. Araştırma soruları a) hangi bağlamda yolsuzluğun meydana geldiği, b) fiziksel, bilişsel, duygusal, sosyal ve kültürel durumların neler olduğu ve c) insanların neden rüşvet verdikleri ve motivasyonları ne olduğu yöndedir? Empatik bir anlayış kazanma insanları anlamak düşüncelerini, duygularını ve ihtiyaçlarını dinleyerek, gözlemleyerek, etkileşerek ve analiz ederek kazanılır. İnsanların rüşvet hikayelerini dikkatli bir şekilde dinlemek, çok şaşırtıcı ve açık olmayan çok değerli gerçekleri açığa çıkarabilir. Böyle değerli bilgilere ulaşmak için insanların yaptığı, söylediği ve düşündüğü her şeye odaklanılmalı; Bir siyasi politikayı uygularken insanların faaliyetlerini, ihtiyaçlarını, motivasyonlarını ve genel deneyimlerini derinlemesine zihnimizde olmalı.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Rüşvet
• sosyal psikoloji
• psikoloji
• etnografi
• kalkınmakta olan ülkeler

Cultural, Social, Emotional and Cognitive Aspects of Corruption in Turkey

Öz

This paper aims to contribute to an improved understanding of the role played by psychology and social psychology in corruption in Turkey using enthnographic methods. The social psychological elements are very strong in bribery transactions, linked to the concept of obedience and conformity. Previous works rely on survey questions. However, survey responses may not reflect true experiences in actual corruption scenarios. From this perspective, it is the first ethnographic academic research on corruption. The research questions concern a) in which context corruption occurs, b) what are the physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural situations, and c) what people’s motivations are and why people give into bribery. Knowing people is about gaining an empathic understanding of people’s thoughts, feelings, and needs by interacting. Immersing yourself in people’s bribery transactions and keenly listening to their bribery stories can provide valuable insights whish are sometimes quite surprising and nonobvious. To get to such valuable insights, we should focus on everything that people do, say, and think during ther bribery transaction; we should deeply understand people’s motivations, and overall experiences when we implement policies.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Corruption
• social psychology
• psychology
• ethnography
• developing economies

Kaynakça

1. Acemoglu, D., & Verdier, T. (1998). Property rights, corruption and the allocation of talent: A general equilibrium approach. Econ Journal, 108(450), 1381–1403.
2. Beets , S. D . (2005). Understanding the demand-side issues of international corruption. Journal of Business Ethics, 57(1): 65–81.
3. Brown, T. (2008). Design thinking. Harvard Business Review, 5(3), 56–65.
4. Brown T. (2009). Change by design: How design thinking transforms organizations and inspires innovation. New York: Harper Business.
5. Cateora, P. R., Gilly, M.C., & Graham, J. L. (2009). International marketing. Irwin, New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Caselli, F., & Morelli, M. (2004). Bad politicians. Journal of Public Economics 88(3–4), 752–782.
7. Chandler, J. D., & Graham, J. L. (2010). Relationship-oriented cultures, corruption, and international marketing success. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(2), 251–267.
8. DiRienzo, C., Das, J., Cort, K., & Burbridge, J. (2007). Corruption and the role of information. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(2), 320–332.

9. Dollar, D., & Levin, V. (2006). The increasing selectivity of foreign aid, 1984–2003. World Development, 34(12), 2034–2046.
10. Everett, J., Neu, D., & Shiraz, A. (2007). Accounting and the global fight against corruption. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 32(6), 513–542.
11. Forsyth, D.R (2006). Group dynamics. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadworth.
12. Gelbrich, K., Stedham, Y., & Gäthke, D. (2016). Cultural discrepancy and national corruption: investigating the difference between cultural values and practices and its relationship to corrupt behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly, 26, 2.
13. Getz, K. A., & Volkema, R. J. (2001). Culture, perceived corruption, and economics: A model of predictors and outcomes. Business & Society, 40(1), 7–30.
14. Harrison, L. E. (2000). Culture matters. The National Interest, 60, 55–65.
15. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
16. Huang, H., & Wei, S. J. (2006). Monetary policies for developing countries: The role of institutional quality. Journal of International Economics, 10(1), 239–252.
17. Huntington, S. P. (1968). Political order in changing societies. New Haven: Yale University Press.
18. Husted, B. (1999). Wealth, culture, and corruption. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(2), 339–359.
19. Izraeli, D. (1997). Business ethics in the middle east. Journal of Business Ethics, 16(14), 1555–1560.
20. Khera, I. P. (2001). Business ethics east versus west: myths and realities. Journal of Business Ethics, 30(1), 29–39.
21. Kelley, T., & Kelley. (2013). Creative confidence: unleashing the creative potential within us. New York: Crown Business.
22. Kumar, V. (2012). 101 Design methods: A structured approach for driving innovation in your organization. Chicago: Wiley.
23. Lee, W. & Guven, C. (2013). Engaging in corruption: The influence of cultural values and contagion effects at the microlevel. Journal of Economic Psychology, 39(4): 287–300.
24. Leff, N. (1964). Economic development through bureaucratic corruption. Amer. Behav. Sci., 8(2), 8–14.
25. Liedtka, J., King, A., & Bennett, K. (2014). Solvıng problems with design thinking. New York: Columbia Business School.
26. Martin, K. D., Cullen, J. B., Johnson, J. L., & Parbotheeah, K. P . (2007). Deciding to bribe: A cross-level analysis of the fi rm and home country infl uences on bribery activity. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6): 1401–1422.
27. Maingot, A. P. (1994). Confronting corruption in the hemisphere: A sociological perspective. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 36, 49–63.
28. Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 681–712.
29. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority; An experimental view. New York: Harpercollins.
30. Miller, W. (2006). Corruption and corruptibility. World Development, 34, 371–380.
31. Mo, P. H. (2001). Corruption and Economic Growth. J. Comp. Econ., 29(1), 66–79.
32. O’Higgins, E. (2006). Corruption, underdevelopment, and extractive industries: addressing the vicious cycle. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16(2), 235–254.
33. Park., H. (2003). Determinants of corruption: A cross-national analysis . The Multinational Business Review, 11(2): 29–48.
34. Quah, J. S. T. (1999). Corruption in asian countries: can it be minimized? Public Administration Review, 59(6), 483–494.
35. Razafindrakoto, M., & Roubaud, F. (2010). Are international databases on corruption reliable? A comparison of expert opinion surveys and household surveys in sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 38, 1057–1069.
36. Riggs, F. W. (1997). Modernity and bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 57(4), 247–353.
37. Rivas, M. (2011). An experiment on corruption and gender. Working Paper, Middle East Technical University –Northern Cyprus Campus.
38. Rose-Ackerman, S., & Palifka, B. J. (2016). Corruption and government: causes, consequences, and reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
39. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In Worchel, S; Austin, W.G. Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago, Illinois: Nelson-Hall.
40. Theobald, R. (2002). Containing Corruption: Can the State Deliver? New Political Economy, 7(3), 435–449.
41. Tranparency International (2017). Turkey’s institutions are failing to comply with good governance principles and combat corruption. https://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles
42. Treisman, D. (2000). The causes of corruption: a cross-national study. Journal of Public Economics, 76, 399–457. Sanyal, R. N. (2005). Determinants of bribery in international business. Journal of Business Ethics, 59(1-2), 139–145.
43. Slavador, T., Bell, G., & Ken, A. (1999). Design ethnography. Design Management Journal, Fall, 35–41.
44. Schulze, G., & Frank, B. (2003). Deterrence versus intrinsic motivation: experimental evidence on the determinants of corruptibility. Economics of Governance, 4, 143–160.
45. Svensson, J. (2003). Who must pay bribes and how much? Evidence from a cross section of firms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118, 207–230.
46. Waller, C. J., Verdier, T., & Gardner, R. (2002). Corruption: Top down or bottom up? Economic Inquiry, 40(4), 688–703.
47. Whitney, P (2001). Culture shock. Context Magazine, August, September, 18–19.
48. Whitney, P. (2003). Global companies in local markets. Product Design Magazine, April, 49–53. Acemoglu, D., & Verdier, T. (1998). Property rights, corruption and the allocation of talent: A general equilibrium approach. Econ Journal, 108(450), 1381–1403.
49. Beets , S. D . (2005). Understanding the demand-side issues of international corruption. Journal of Business Ethics, 57(1): 65–81.
50. Brown, T. (2008). Design thinking. Harvard Business Review, 5(3), 56–65.
51. Brown T. (2009). Change by design: How design thinking transforms organizations and inspires innovation. New York: Harper Business.
52. Cateora, P. R., Gilly, M.C., & Graham, J. L. (2009). International marketing. Irwin, New York: McGraw-Hill.
53. Caselli, F., & Morelli, M. (2004). Bad politicians. Journal of Public Economics 88(3–4), 752–782.
54. Chandler, J. D., & Graham, J. L. (2010). Relationship-oriented cultures, corruption, and international marketing success. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(2), 251–267.
55. DiRienzo, C., Das, J., Cort, K., & Burbridge, J. (2007). Corruption and the role of information. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(2), 320–332.
56. Dollar, D., & Levin, V. (2006). The increasing selectivity of foreign aid, 1984–2003. World Development, 34(12), 2034–2046.
57. Everett, J., Neu, D., & Shiraz, A. (2007). Accounting and the global fight against corruption. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 32(6), 513–542.
58. Forsyth, D.R (2006). Group dynamics. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadworth.
59. Gelbrich, K., Stedham, Y., & Gäthke, D. (2016). Cultural discrepancy and national corruption: investigating the difference between cultural values and practices and its relationship to corrupt behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly, 26, 2.
60. Getz, K. A., & Volkema, R. J. (2001). Culture, perceived corruption, and economics: A model of predictors and outcomes. Business & Society, 40(1), 7–30.
61. Harrison, L. E. (2000). Culture matters. The National Interest, 60, 55–65.
62. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
63. Huang, H., & Wei, S. J. (2006). Monetary policies for developing countries: The role of institutional quality. Journal of International Economics, 10(1), 239–252.
64. Huntington, S. P. (1968). Political order in changing societies. New Haven: Yale University Press.
65. Husted, B. (1999). Wealth, culture, and corruption. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(2), 339–359.
66. Izraeli, D. (1997). Business ethics in the middle east. Journal of Business Ethics, 16(14), 1555–1560.
67. Khera, I. P. (2001). Business ethics east versus west: myths and realities. Journal of Business Ethics, 30(1), 29–39.
68. Kelley, T., & Kelley. (2013). Creative confidence: unleashing the creative potential within us. New York: Crown Business.
69. Kumar, V. (2012). 101 Design methods: A structured approach for driving innovation in your organization. Chicago: Wiley.
70. Lee, W. & Guven, C. (2013). Engaging in corruption: The influence of cultural values and contagion effects at the microlevel. Journal of Economic Psychology, 39(4): 287–300.
71. Leff, N. (1964). Economic development through bureaucratic corruption. Amer. Behav. Sci., 8(2), 8–14.
72. Liedtka, J., King, A., & Bennett, K. (2014). Solvıng problems with design thinking. New York: Columbia Business School.
73. Martin, K. D., Cullen, J. B., Johnson, J. L., & Parbotheeah, K. P . (2007). Deciding to bribe: A cross-level analysis of the fi rm and home country infl uences on bribery activity. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6): 1401–1422.
74. Maingot, A. P. (1994). Confronting corruption in the hemisphere: A sociological perspective. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 36, 49–63.
75. Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 681–712.
76. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority; An experimental view. New York: Harpercollins.
77. Miller, W. (2006). Corruption and corruptibility. World Development, 34, 371–380.
78. Mo, P. H. (2001). Corruption and Economic Growth. J. Comp. Econ., 29(1), 66–79.
79. O’Higgins, E. (2006). Corruption, underdevelopment, and extractive industries: addressing the vicious cycle. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16(2), 235–254.
80. Park., H. (2003). Determinants of corruption: A cross-national analysis . The Multinational Business Review, 11(2): 29–48.
81. Quah, J. S. T. (1999). Corruption in asian countries: can it be minimized? Public Administration Review, 59(6), 483–494.
82. Razafindrakoto, M., & Roubaud, F. (2010). Are international databases on corruption reliable? A comparison of expert opinion surveys and household surveys in sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 38, 1057–1069.
83. Riggs, F. W. (1997). Modernity and bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 57(4), 247–353.
84. Rivas, M. (2011). An experiment on corruption and gender. Working Paper, Middle East Technical University –Northern Cyprus Campus.
85. Rose-Ackerman, S., & Palifka, B. J. (2016). Corruption and government: causes, consequences, and reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
86. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In Worchel, S; Austin, W.G. Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago, Illinois: Nelson-Hall.
87. Theobald, R. (2002). Containing Corruption: Can the State Deliver? New Political Economy, 7(3), 435–449.
88. Tranparency International (2017). Turkey’s institutions are failing to comply with good governance principles and combat corruption. https://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles
89. Treisman, D. (2000). The causes of corruption: a cross-national study. Journal of Public Economics, 76, 399–457. Sanyal, R. N. (2005). Determinants of bribery in international business. Journal of Business Ethics, 59(1-2), 139–145.
90. Slavador, T., Bell, G., & Ken, A. (1999). Design ethnography. Design Management Journal, Fall, 35–41.
91. Schulze, G., & Frank, B. (2003). Deterrence versus intrinsic motivation: experimental evidence on the determinants of corruptibility. Economics of Governance, 4, 143–160.
92. Svensson, J. (2003). Who must pay bribes and how much? Evidence from a cross section of firms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118, 207–230.
93. Waller, C. J., Verdier, T., & Gardner, R. (2002). Corruption: Top down or bottom up? Economic Inquiry, 40(4), 688–703.
94. Whitney, P (2001). Culture shock. Context Magazine, August, September, 18–19.
95. Whitney, P. (2003). Global companies in local markets. Product Design Magazine, April, 49–53.