Online learning self-efficacy beliefs predict subjective well-being of college students during COVID-19 pandemic
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 7 Sayı: 3, 334 - 345, 30.09.2024
Merve Güçlü Aydoğan
,
Selvira Draganović
,
Mehmet Akif Elen
Öz
Online learning self-efficacy is associated with significant psychological outcomes among college students. Nevertheless, research investigating self-efficacy among college students during COVID-16 pandemic is limited. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of self-efficacy beliefs regarding online learning in predicting subjective well-being of college students. One hundred sixty-five college students were recruited for the study. Participants completed the Online Learning Self-Efficacy Scale (OLSES), the Subjective Well-Being Scale (SWBS), and a socio-demographic information form, which included items related to COVID-19 anxiety and the perceived impact of COVID-19 on daily life. Regression analyses showed that overall self-efficacy predicted subjective well-being scores. However, only the time management subdimension of self-efficacy significantly predicted subjective well-being. Our findings suggest that high levels of self-efficacy, particularly in time management, are associated with elevated levels of subjective well-being among college students. Interventions targeting self-efficacy in online learning environments may benefit college students with lower levels of subjective well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Etik Beyan
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the International University of Sarajevo (24/05/2021; IUS-REC-01-921/2021).
Teşekkür
The authors would like to thank Amina Ruhotina, Kanita Merdic, Salim Duhan Köseoğlu, Enes Demir, Abdullah Tekinkaya, and Ali Uymaz for their contributions in data collection.
Kaynakça
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- Alameri, J., Masadeh, R., Hamadallah, E., Ismail, H. B., & Fakhouri, H. N. (2020). Students’ Perceptions of E-learning platforms (Moodle, Microsoft Teams and Zoom platforms) in The University of Jordan Education and its Relation to self-study and Academic Achievement During COVID-19 pandemic. Journal ISSN, 2692, 2800.
- Altuwairesh, N. (2021). Female Saudi University students’ perceptions of online education amid COVID-19 pandemic. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on Covid, 19.
- Aparicio, M., Bacao, F., & Oliveira, T. (2017). Grit in the path to e-learning success. Computers in Human Behavior, 66, 388–399.
- Arifiana, I. Y., Rahmawati, H., Hanurawan, F., & Eva, N. (2020). Stop academic procrastination during Covid 19: academic procrastination reduces subjective well-being. KnE Social Sciences, 312–325.
- Artino, A. R. (2008). Motivational beliefs and perceptions of instructional quality: Predicting satisfaction with online training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(3), 260–270.
- Bailey, D. R., Almusharraf, N., & Almusharraf, A. (2022). Video conferencing in the e-learning context: explaining learning outcome with the technology acceptance model. Education and Information Technologies, 27(6), 7679–7698.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191.
- Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122–147.
- Bandura, A. (1997). Theoretical Perspectives. In Self-efficacy: The exercise of control (pp. 1–10). W.H. Freeman and Company.
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- Bates, R., & Khasawneh, S. (2007). Self-efficacy and college students’ perceptions and use of online learning systems. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1), 175–191.
- Bhati, K., Baral, R., & Meher, V. (2022). Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance among Undergraduate Students in Relation to Gender and Streams of Education. Indonesian Journal of Contemporary Education, 4(2), 80–88.
- Bonneville-Roussy, A., Bouffard, T., Palikara, O., & Vezeau, C. (2019). The role of cultural values in teacher and student self-efficacy: Evidence from 16 nations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101798.
- Bu, X., Wu, L., & Wang, H. (2021). Impact of college students’ academic procrastination on subjective well-being. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 49(7), 1–13.
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- Dost Tuzgöl, M. (2005). Öznel İyi Oluş Ölçeği’nin Geliştirlmesi: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 3(23), 103–111.
- Duru, E., & Balkıs, M. (2017). Procrastination, self-esteem, academic performance, and well-being: A moderated mediation model.
- Ergul, H. (2004). Relationship between student characteristics and academic achievement in distance education and application on students of Anadolu University. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 5(2).
- Fancourt, D., Steptoe, A., & Bu, F. (2020). Trajectories of anxiety and depressive symptoms during enforced isolation due to COVID-19: longitudinal analyses of 36,520 adults in England. MedRxiv.
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- García-Álvarez, D., Hernández-Lalinde, J., & Cobo-Rendón, R. (2021). Emotional Intelligence and Academic Self-Efficacy in Relation to the Psychological Well-Being of University Students During COVID-19 in Venezuela. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 759701.
- Gebara, N. L. (2010). General self-efficacy and course satisfaction in online learning: A correlational study. University of Missouri-Columbia.
- Hayat, A. A., Shateri, K., Amini, M., & Shokrpour, N. (2020). Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: a structural equation model. BMC Medical Education, 20(1), 1–11.
- Heinitz, K., Lorenz, T., Schulze, D., & Schorlemmer, J. (2018). Positive organizational behavior: Longitudinal effects on subjective well-being. PloS One, 13(6), e0198588.
- Hung, M.-L., Chou, C., Chen, C.-H., & Own, Z.-Y. (2010). Learner readiness for online learning: Scale development and student perceptions. Computers & Education, 55(3), 1080–1090.
- Hutasuhut, S., Thamrin, T., & Aditia, R. (2021). Factors affecting students’ entrepreneurial intentions and their differences based on gender, tribe, and parents’ occupation: a cross-sectional study. F1000Research, 10(438), 438.
- Ibrahim, I., Akib, M., Lebeharia, E. F., & Saleh, F. (2022). Investigating Students’ Perception on Online Learning: A Comparative Study of Gender-Based EFL Learning During Covid-19 Pandemic. Qalam: Jurnal Ilmu Kependidikan, 10(2), 89–109.
- Ithriah, S. A., Ridwandono, D., & Suryanto, T. L. M. (2020). Online Learning Self-Efficacy: The Role in E-Learning Success. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1569(2), 22053.
- Jin, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, Y., & An, J. (2020). The relationship between trait mindfulness, loneliness, regulatory emotional self-efficacy, and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 154, 109650.
- Juniarti, F., & Regina, A. (2022). Time Management, Psychological Well-Being, Home-Learning COVID-19. Psikodidaktika: Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan, Psikologi, Bimbingan Dan Konseling, 6(2), 261–272.
- Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46(2), 137–155.
- Macan, T. H., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Phillips, A. P. (1990). College students’ time management: Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 760.
- Mattern, J., Lansmann, S., & Mersmann, M. (2019). The Key is not Spending but Investing Time-Students’ Time Management and the Impact on Perceived Stress and Psychological Well-Being. Bled EConference, 43.
- McGhee, R. M. H. (2010). Asynchronous interaction, online technologies self-efficacy and self-regulated learning as predictors of academic achievement in an online class. Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College.
- Muthuprasad, T., Aiswarya, S., Aditya, K. S., & Jha, G. K. (2021). Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100101.
- Özbiler, Ş. (2020). Resilience as the Mediator of the Relationship between Emotional Availability of Fathers and Subjective Well-Being of Emerging Adults. Psikoloji Çalışmaları, 40(2), 513–531.
- Pajares, F. (1996). Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543
- Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants part 2: Do they really think differently? On the Horizon.
- Proctor, C., & Michalos, A. C. (2014). Subjective well-being. In Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 6437–6441). Springer. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2905
- Rania, N., & Coppola, I. (2021). Psychological Impact of the Lockdown in Italy Due to the COVID-19 Outbreak: Are There Gender Differences? . In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 12). https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.567470
- Ryerson, N. C. (2022). Behavioral and psychological correlates of well-being during COVID-19. Psychological Reports, 125(1), 200–217.
- Saadé, R., Kira, D., & Nebebe, F. (2013). The challenge of motivation in e-Learning: role of anxiety. Proceedings of the Informing Science and Information Technology Education Conference, 301–308.
- Sabouripour, F., Roslan, S., Ghiami, Z., & Memon, M. A. (2021). Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Relationship Between Optimism, Psychological Well-Being, and Resilience Among Iranian Students . In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 12). https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.675645
- Sen, S., Mandi, A., Dhara, B., Ansary, F., Mandi, M., & Baran, M. (2021). General Self-Efficacy and Specific Self-Efficacy of Postgraduate Students in the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Study. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 2(9), 531–536. https://ijrpr.com/uploads/V2ISSUE9/IJRPR1282.pdf
- Shen, D., Cho, M.-H., Tsai, C.-L., & Marra, R. (2013). Unpacking online learning experiences: Online learning self-efficacy and learning satisfaction. The Internet and Higher Education, 19, 10–17.
- Singh, B., & Udainiya, R. (2009). Self-efficacy and well-being of adolescents. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology.
- Strobel, M., Tumasjan, A., & Spörrle, M. (2011). Be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy: Self‐efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well‐being. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 52(1), 43–48.
- Szymkowiak, A., Melović, B., Dabić, M., Jeganathan, K., & Kundi, G. S. (2021). Information technology and Gen Z: The role of teachers, the internet, and technology in the education of young people. Technology in Society, 65, 101565.
- Tang, Y. M., Chen, P. C., Law, K. M. Y., Wu, C. H., Lau, Y., Guan, J., He, D., & Ho, G. T. S. (2021). Comparative analysis of Student’s live online learning readiness during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in the higher education sector. Computers & Education, 168, 104211.
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- van Esch, C., Luse, W., & Bonner, R. L. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic concerns and gender on mentor seeking behavior and self-efficacy. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal.
- Wen, F., Zhu, J., Ye, H., Li, L., Ma, Z., Wen, X., & Zuo, B. (2021). Associations between insecurity and stress among Chinese university students: The mediating effects of hope and self-efficacy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 281, 447–453.
- Yadav, C. S., Monga, S., Tanwar, S., & Irfan, M. (2020). THE EFFECT OF TIME MANAGEMENT ON SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. International Journal of Management (IJM), 11(12).
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Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 7 Sayı: 3, 334 - 345, 30.09.2024
Merve Güçlü Aydoğan
,
Selvira Draganović
,
Mehmet Akif Elen
Kaynakça
- Abdous, M. (2019). Influence of satisfaction and preparedness on online students’ feelings of anxiety. The Internet and Higher Education, 41, 34–44.
- Aguilera-Hermida, A. P., Quiroga-Garza, A., Gómez-Mendoza, S., Del Río Villanueva, C. A., Avolio Alecchi, B., & Avci, D. (2021). Comparison of students’ use and acceptance of emergency online learning due to COVID-19 in the USA, Mexico, Peru, and Turkey. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6), 6823–6845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10473-8
- Alameri, J., Masadeh, R., Hamadallah, E., Ismail, H. B., & Fakhouri, H. N. (2020). Students’ Perceptions of E-learning platforms (Moodle, Microsoft Teams and Zoom platforms) in The University of Jordan Education and its Relation to self-study and Academic Achievement During COVID-19 pandemic. Journal ISSN, 2692, 2800.
- Altuwairesh, N. (2021). Female Saudi University students’ perceptions of online education amid COVID-19 pandemic. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on Covid, 19.
- Aparicio, M., Bacao, F., & Oliveira, T. (2017). Grit in the path to e-learning success. Computers in Human Behavior, 66, 388–399.
- Arifiana, I. Y., Rahmawati, H., Hanurawan, F., & Eva, N. (2020). Stop academic procrastination during Covid 19: academic procrastination reduces subjective well-being. KnE Social Sciences, 312–325.
- Artino, A. R. (2008). Motivational beliefs and perceptions of instructional quality: Predicting satisfaction with online training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(3), 260–270.
- Bailey, D. R., Almusharraf, N., & Almusharraf, A. (2022). Video conferencing in the e-learning context: explaining learning outcome with the technology acceptance model. Education and Information Technologies, 27(6), 7679–7698.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191.
- Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122–147.
- Bandura, A. (1997). Theoretical Perspectives. In Self-efficacy: The exercise of control (pp. 1–10). W.H. Freeman and Company.
- Bandura, A. (2012). On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. In Journal of management (Vol. 38, Issue 1, pp. 9–44). Sage Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA.
- Bast, F. (2021). Perception of Online Learning Among Students From India Set Against the Pandemic. Frontiers in Education, 317.
- Bates, R., & Khasawneh, S. (2007). Self-efficacy and college students’ perceptions and use of online learning systems. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1), 175–191.
- Bhati, K., Baral, R., & Meher, V. (2022). Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance among Undergraduate Students in Relation to Gender and Streams of Education. Indonesian Journal of Contemporary Education, 4(2), 80–88.
- Bonneville-Roussy, A., Bouffard, T., Palikara, O., & Vezeau, C. (2019). The role of cultural values in teacher and student self-efficacy: Evidence from 16 nations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101798.
- Bu, X., Wu, L., & Wang, H. (2021). Impact of college students’ academic procrastination on subjective well-being. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 49(7), 1–13.
- Chandler, K. (2016). Using breakout rooms in synchronous online tutorials. Journal of Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice, 4(3), 16–23.
- Cheikh Ismail, L., Mohamad, M. N., Bataineh, M. F., Ajab, A., Al-Marzouqi, A. M., Jarrar, A. H., Abu Jamous, D. O., Ali, H. I., Al Sabbah, H., Hasan, H., Stojanovska, L., Hashim, M., Shaker Obaid, R. R., Saleh, S. T., Osaili, T. M., & Al Dhaheri, A. S. (2021). Impact of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) Lockdown on Mental Health and Well-Being in the United Arab Emirates . In Frontiers in Psychiatry (Vol. 12). https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.633230
- Chyung, S. Y. Y. (2007). Age and gender differences in online behavior, self-efficacy, and academic performance. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 8(3), 213.
- Clabaugh, A., Duque, J. F., & Fields, L. J. (2021). Academic stress and emotional well-being in united states college students following onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.
- Diener, Ed. (1984). Subjective Well-Being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575.
- Diener, Edward, Lucas, R. E., & Oishi, S. (2002). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. Handbook of Positive Psychology, 2, 63–73.
- Dost Tuzgöl, M. (2005). Öznel İyi Oluş Ölçeği’nin Geliştirlmesi: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 3(23), 103–111.
- Duru, E., & Balkıs, M. (2017). Procrastination, self-esteem, academic performance, and well-being: A moderated mediation model.
- Ergul, H. (2004). Relationship between student characteristics and academic achievement in distance education and application on students of Anadolu University. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 5(2).
- Fancourt, D., Steptoe, A., & Bu, F. (2020). Trajectories of anxiety and depressive symptoms during enforced isolation due to COVID-19: longitudinal analyses of 36,520 adults in England. MedRxiv.
- Gallagher, M. W., Smith, L. J., Richardson, A. L., & Long, L. J. (2021). Six Month Trajectories of COVID-19 Experiences and Associated Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Impairment in American Adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1–13.
- García-Álvarez, D., Hernández-Lalinde, J., & Cobo-Rendón, R. (2021). Emotional Intelligence and Academic Self-Efficacy in Relation to the Psychological Well-Being of University Students During COVID-19 in Venezuela. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 759701.
- Gebara, N. L. (2010). General self-efficacy and course satisfaction in online learning: A correlational study. University of Missouri-Columbia.
- Hayat, A. A., Shateri, K., Amini, M., & Shokrpour, N. (2020). Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: a structural equation model. BMC Medical Education, 20(1), 1–11.
- Heinitz, K., Lorenz, T., Schulze, D., & Schorlemmer, J. (2018). Positive organizational behavior: Longitudinal effects on subjective well-being. PloS One, 13(6), e0198588.
- Hung, M.-L., Chou, C., Chen, C.-H., & Own, Z.-Y. (2010). Learner readiness for online learning: Scale development and student perceptions. Computers & Education, 55(3), 1080–1090.
- Hutasuhut, S., Thamrin, T., & Aditia, R. (2021). Factors affecting students’ entrepreneurial intentions and their differences based on gender, tribe, and parents’ occupation: a cross-sectional study. F1000Research, 10(438), 438.
- Ibrahim, I., Akib, M., Lebeharia, E. F., & Saleh, F. (2022). Investigating Students’ Perception on Online Learning: A Comparative Study of Gender-Based EFL Learning During Covid-19 Pandemic. Qalam: Jurnal Ilmu Kependidikan, 10(2), 89–109.
- Ithriah, S. A., Ridwandono, D., & Suryanto, T. L. M. (2020). Online Learning Self-Efficacy: The Role in E-Learning Success. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1569(2), 22053.
- Jin, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, Y., & An, J. (2020). The relationship between trait mindfulness, loneliness, regulatory emotional self-efficacy, and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 154, 109650.
- Juniarti, F., & Regina, A. (2022). Time Management, Psychological Well-Being, Home-Learning COVID-19. Psikodidaktika: Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan, Psikologi, Bimbingan Dan Konseling, 6(2), 261–272.
- Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46(2), 137–155.
- Macan, T. H., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Phillips, A. P. (1990). College students’ time management: Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 760.
- Mattern, J., Lansmann, S., & Mersmann, M. (2019). The Key is not Spending but Investing Time-Students’ Time Management and the Impact on Perceived Stress and Psychological Well-Being. Bled EConference, 43.
- McGhee, R. M. H. (2010). Asynchronous interaction, online technologies self-efficacy and self-regulated learning as predictors of academic achievement in an online class. Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College.
- Muthuprasad, T., Aiswarya, S., Aditya, K. S., & Jha, G. K. (2021). Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100101.
- Özbiler, Ş. (2020). Resilience as the Mediator of the Relationship between Emotional Availability of Fathers and Subjective Well-Being of Emerging Adults. Psikoloji Çalışmaları, 40(2), 513–531.
- Pajares, F. (1996). Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543
- Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants part 2: Do they really think differently? On the Horizon.
- Proctor, C., & Michalos, A. C. (2014). Subjective well-being. In Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 6437–6441). Springer. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2905
- Rania, N., & Coppola, I. (2021). Psychological Impact of the Lockdown in Italy Due to the COVID-19 Outbreak: Are There Gender Differences? . In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 12). https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.567470
- Ryerson, N. C. (2022). Behavioral and psychological correlates of well-being during COVID-19. Psychological Reports, 125(1), 200–217.
- Saadé, R., Kira, D., & Nebebe, F. (2013). The challenge of motivation in e-Learning: role of anxiety. Proceedings of the Informing Science and Information Technology Education Conference, 301–308.
- Sabouripour, F., Roslan, S., Ghiami, Z., & Memon, M. A. (2021). Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Relationship Between Optimism, Psychological Well-Being, and Resilience Among Iranian Students . In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 12). https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.675645
- Sen, S., Mandi, A., Dhara, B., Ansary, F., Mandi, M., & Baran, M. (2021). General Self-Efficacy and Specific Self-Efficacy of Postgraduate Students in the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Study. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 2(9), 531–536. https://ijrpr.com/uploads/V2ISSUE9/IJRPR1282.pdf
- Shen, D., Cho, M.-H., Tsai, C.-L., & Marra, R. (2013). Unpacking online learning experiences: Online learning self-efficacy and learning satisfaction. The Internet and Higher Education, 19, 10–17.
- Singh, B., & Udainiya, R. (2009). Self-efficacy and well-being of adolescents. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology.
- Strobel, M., Tumasjan, A., & Spörrle, M. (2011). Be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy: Self‐efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well‐being. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 52(1), 43–48.
- Szymkowiak, A., Melović, B., Dabić, M., Jeganathan, K., & Kundi, G. S. (2021). Information technology and Gen Z: The role of teachers, the internet, and technology in the education of young people. Technology in Society, 65, 101565.
- Tang, Y. M., Chen, P. C., Law, K. M. Y., Wu, C. H., Lau, Y., Guan, J., He, D., & Ho, G. T. S. (2021). Comparative analysis of Student’s live online learning readiness during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in the higher education sector. Computers & Education, 168, 104211.
- Tella, A., Tella, A., Ayeni, C. O., & Omoba, R. O. (2007). Self-efficacy and use of electronic information as predictors of academic performance.
- van Esch, C., Luse, W., & Bonner, R. L. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic concerns and gender on mentor seeking behavior and self-efficacy. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal.
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