Bilingualism and Biculturalism: Migration, Identity and Ownership

Yıl 2020, , 183 - 207, 31.12.2020

Betül Ertek , F. Büşra Süverdem

https://doi.org/10.34137/jilses.826142

Cited By: 10

Öz

The concepts of bilingualism and biculturalism have often been subjects of distinct research fields despite they are closely related. However, language and culture are in a constant interaction and an integral part of each other. This dynamic relationship between language and culture is prevalent at the same time for monolingual individuals and societies as well as for bilingual individuals and societies. These concepts must be dealt with together, especially when they concern immigrants. This descriptive study presents a traditional literature review. The aim of this article is to discuss current definitions and classifications of bilingualism and biculturalism, explain the relation between bilingualism and biculturalism and analyse particularly how these two concepts develop in immigrants. To do this, in the first part, minimalist and maximalist approaches of bilingualism have been treated. Then, different types and current definitions of bilingualism have been mentioned. In a second part entitled “Identity and Ownership”, the concepts of identity, culture and biculturalism have been introduced. In this part, different concepts related to identity and culture have been defined as Social Identity, Cultural Identity, Ethnic Identity, Enculturation and Acculturation. In the next part, the relationship between bilingualism and biculturalism has been discussed and some factors that can be considered common to bilingualism and biculturalism have been explained as Cultural Dominance, Age of Acculturation, Cultural Identity and self-perception of the individual as well as Cultural ‘Comfort’. Finally, the development of bilingualism and biculturalism in a context of migration, the bilingual development of immigrants in the framework of the hierarchical relationship between the minority and the majority languages as well as the acculturation strategies adopted by them have been examined.    

Anahtar Kelimeler

Bilingualism,, Biculturalism,, Migration,, Identity,, Ownership

İki Dillilik ve İki Kültürlülük: Göç, Kimlik ve Aidiyet

Öz

İki dillilik ve iki kültürlülük kavramları ilintili olmalarına karşın çoğunlukla farklı araştırma alanlarının konusu olmuşlardır. Oysa dil ve kültür, devamlı etkileşim halindedir ve birbirinin ayrılmaz parçasıdır. Dil ve kültür arasındaki bu devingen ilişki tek dilli bireyler ve toplumlar için geçerli olduğu gibi iki dilli bireyler ve toplumlar için de geçerlidir. Göçmenler söz konusu olduğunda bu iki kavramı birlikte ele almak daha da önemli hale gelmektedir. Bu betimsel çalışmada geleneksel tarama yöntemi kullanılarak bir alanyazın taraması yapılmıştır. Makalenin amacı: iki dilliliğin ve iki kültürlülüğün güncel tanımlarını ve sınıflandırmalarını ele almak, iki dillilik ve iki kültürlülük arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklamak ve özellikle göçmenlerde bu iki kavramın nasıl geliştiğini incelemektir. Bunun için, birinci bölümde ilk önce iki dillilikte var olan minimalist ve maksimalist tanımlar ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra iki dilliliğin farklı türleri ve iki dillilikte güncel yaklaşımlar açıklanmıştır. “Kimlik ve Aidiyet” başlıklı ikinci bölümde kimlik, kültür ve iki kültürlülük kavramlarına değinilmiştir. Bu bölümde Toplumsal Kimlik, Kültürel Kimlik, Etnik Kimlik, Kültürlenme ve Kültürleşme gibi kavramların tanımlarına yer verilmiştir. Sonraki bölümde iki dillilik ve iki kültürlülük arasındaki ilişkiye değinilmiş, Kültürel baskınlık, Kültürleşme yaşı, Kültürel Kimlik ve bireyin öz algısı, Kültürel ‘Rahatlık’ gibi iki kültürlülüğün, iki dillilik tanımlarıyla benzeşen unsurları vurgulanmıştır. Son olarak iki dillilik ve iki kültürlülük kavramlarının göç ortamında nasıl geliştikleri ayrıntılı şekilde ele alınmış, göçmen bireylerin azınlık ve çoğunluk dilleri arasındaki saygınlık ilişkisi çerçevesinde gelişen iki dillilikleri ve benimsedikleri kültürleşme stratejileri irdelenmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

İki dillilik, İki kültürlülük, Göç, Kimlik, Aidiyet

Kaynakça

• Akıncı, M.-A. (2001). Pratiques langagières et représentations subjectives de la vitalité ethnolinguistique des immigrés turcs en France. In : L’Observateur-Gözlem (revue du Conseil Français des Associations d’Immigrés de Turquie), n°8, 16-22.
• Akıncı, M-A. (2016). Culture d’origine et apprentissage : le cas des jeunes enfants bilingues issus de familles immigrées originaires de Turquie. In : Auzou-Caillemet, T. & Loret, M. (éds.), Prendre en compte le corps et l’origine socioculturelle dans les apprentissages. Paris : Retz, collection « Co-édition », 202-238.
• Akıncı, M.-A., De Ruiter, J.-J. & Sanagustin, F. (2004). Le plurilinguisme à Lyon : le statut des langues à la maison et à l’école, Paris : L’Harmattan.
• Armagnague, M. (2008). Processus d’intégration des jeunes d’origine turque en France et en Allemagne. In Trajectoires, n°2, 79-88.
• Bensekhar-Bennabi, M. (2010). La bilingualité des enfants de migrants face aux enjeux de la transmission familiale. In : Enfances & Psy, 47 (2), 55-56.
• Baetens-Beardsmore, H. (1986). Bilingualism: basic principles. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: A. Padilla (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models and findings. Boulder: Westview, 9-25.
• Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living Successfully in Two Cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (29), 697-712.
• Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. London, New York: Routledge.
• Bialystok, E. (1987). « Influences of bilingualism on metalinguistic development ». York University, Ontario, Volume 3, 154-166.
• Bialystok, E. (1988). Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness. Developmental Psychology, 24, 560-567.
• Bijeljac-Babić, R. (2000). Acquisition de la phonologie et bilinguisme précoce. In : Kail, M. & Fayol, M., L’acquisition du langage. Paris : P.U.F., 169-192.
• Bloomfield, L. (1935). Language. London: Allen & Unwin Ltd Publishers, pp.55-56.
• Conteh, J. (2003). Succeeding in diversity: Culture, Language and Learning in Primary Classrooms, Stokeon-Trent: Trentham.
• Coste, D. (2001). De plus d'une langue à d'autres encore. Penser les compétences plurilingues. In : Castellotti, V. (éd.), D'une langue à d'autres, pratiques et représentations, Rouen : Presses universitaires de Rouen, Dyalang.
• Cummins, J. (1976). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive growth: A synthesis of research findings and explanatory hypotheses. In Working Papers on Bilingualism, n°9, 1–43.
• Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic Interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222-251.
• Cummins, J. (1980). Psychological Assessment of Immigrant Children: Logic or Intuition? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1, 97-111.
• Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In: Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework. Los Angeles, CA: Department of Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center.
• Cummins, J. (1991). Language Development and Academic Learning. In: Malave, L. & and Duquette, G. (eds) Language, Culture and Cognition, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy. Bilingual Children in the Crossfire, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Cummins, J. (2014). L’éducation bilingue : Qu’avons-nous appris de cinquante ans de recherche ? In : Nocus, I., Vernaudon, J. & Pala, M. (dir), L’école plurilingue en outre-mer. Apprendre plusieurs langues. Rennes : Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
• De Houwer, A. (1990). The acquisition of two languages from birth: A case study. Cambridge: Cambridge Univeristy Press.
• De Mejia, A. M., (2002). Power, prestige and bilingualism: International perspectives on elite bilingual education, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Deprez, C. (2012). Les enfants bilingues : langues et familles. Paris : Didier-Credif, Essais (1ère édition 1994).
• Deprez-de-Heredia C. & Varro G. (1991). Le bilinguisme dans les familles. In : Enfance, t. 45, n° 4, 297-304.
• Deshays, E. (1990). L’enfant bilingue. Paris : Robert Laffont.
• De Tapia, S. (1995). Le champ migratoire turc et l’Europe ». In : Dumont, P., Jund, A. & De Tapia, S. (éds): Enjeux de l’immigration turque en Europe. Les Turcs en France et en Allemagne. Paris: CIEMI/L’Harmattan, 15-38.
• Edwards, J. (2004). « Foundations of Bilingualism » in Bhatia, T. K. & Ritchie, W. C. (eds), The Handbook of Bilingualism, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 7-31.
• Ertek, B. (2017). Développement du vocabulaire en turc et en français d’élèves bilingues franco-turcs et monolingues turc et français âgés de 6 à 10 ans. Thèse de doctorat non publiée, Rouen: Université de Rouen Normandie.
• Ervin, S. M. & Osgood, C.E. (1954). Second language learning and bilingualism. In: Journal of Abn and Soc Psy, 58, pp. 139-145.
• Extra, G. & Verhoeven, L. (1999). Bilingualism and Migration. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Fishman, J. A. (1965). Bilingualism intelligence and language learning. In: Modern Language Journal, 49, 227-237.
• Fishman, J. A., Cooper, R. & Ma, R. (1971). Bilingualism in the Barrio. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Gadet, F. & Varro, G. (2006). Le “scandale” du bilinguisme, Langage et société, n° 116, 9-28. DOI 10.3917/ls.116.0009.
• Genesee, F., Paradis, J. & Crago, M. (2004). Dual Language Development and Disorders: A Handbook on Bilingualism and Second Language Learning, Baltimore, M.D.: Brookes Publishing.
• Gordon, R. (2005; ed.). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, 15th ed. Dallas, TX: SIL International.
• Grosjean, F. (1983). How long is the sequence? Prediction and prosody in the on-line processing of language. In: Linguistics, n°21, 501-529.
• Grosjean, F. (1997). The bilingual individual. In: Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting, 2, 163-187.
• Grosjean, F. (2008). The bicultural person: A short introduction. In: F. Grosjean (ed.), Studying bilinguals. Oxford: UK/New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 213-220.
• Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Grosjean, F. (2014). Bicultural bilinguals. In: International Journal of Bilingualism, Published online, 1 April 2014. DOI: 10.1177/1367006914526297.
• Grosjean, F. (2015). Parler plusieurs langues : le monde des bilingues. Paris : Albin Michel.
• Gumperz, J. J. (1964a). Linguistic and social interaction in two communities. In: American Anthropologist, 66, 137-153.
• Hagège, C. (1996). L’enfant aux deux langues. Paris : Odile Jacob.
• Hamers, J. F. & Blanc, M. (1983). Bilinguisme et bilingualité. Bruxelles : Mardaga.
• Hamers, J. F., & Blanc, M. H. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Hamurcu Süverdem, B. (2015). Développement du turc et du français en situation de bilinguisme précoce. Le cas d’enfants d’origine turque scolarisés en maternelle. Thèse de doctorat non publiée, Rouen: Université de Rouen Normandie.
• Haugen, E. (1973). Bilingualism, Language Contact and Immigrant Languages in the United States: A Research Report 1956-1970. In: T. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics (Vol. 10, pp. 505-591). The Hague: Mouton.
• Hélot, C. (2004). Bilinguisme des migrants, bilinguisme des élites, analyse d’un écart en milieu scolaire. In : Akkari, A. & Heer, S. (éds), Quels modèles d’enseignement bilingue pour l’école du 21ème siècle ? Neuchâtel : Les Cahiers de la Recherche HEP Bejeune, 8-27.
• Hélot, C. (2006). De la notion d’écart à la notion de continuum. Comment analyser le caractère inégalitaire du bilinguisme en contexte scolaire ?. In : Hélot, C. ; Hoffmann, E. ; Scheidhauer, M. L. & Young, A. (éds.), Ecarts de langue, écarts de culture. A l’école de l’Autre. Francfort : Peter Lang, 185-206.
• Hélot, C. (2007). Du bilinguisme en famille au plurilinguisme à l’école. Paris : L’Harmattan.
• Hoffmann, Ch. (1991). An Introduction to Bilingualism, Pearson Education Limited: Essex.
• Jakobovitz, L. A. & Lambert, W. E. (1960). Verbal satiation and changes in the intensity of meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 376-383.
• Kail, M. (2015). L’acquisition de plusieurs langues. Paris : P.U.F. Collection Que sais-je ?
• Lambert, W. (1974). Culture and language as factors in learning and education. In: Aboud, F. E. & Meade, R. D. (eds), Cultural Factors in Learning and Education, Bellingham, Washington: Fifth Western Washington Symposium on Learning, 91-122.
• Larousse (2017). Dictionnaire de français. Version en ligne. http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais (10.10.2020).
• Laroussi, F. (2006). La problématique du plurilinguisme et du pluriculturalisme. In : Colloque Bilinguisme et interculturalité, Mayotte, mars 2006 (www.ac-mayotte.fr).
• Le Grand Robert de la Langue Française, (2019). Version électronique 2.0. www.lerobert.com (10.10.2020).
• Lenneberg, E. H. & Roberts, J. M. (1956). The language of experience: a study of methodology. Baltimore, Waverly Press.
• Le Page, R. B. (1968). Problems of description in multilingual communities. Transactions of the Philological Society, 189-212.
• Le Page, R. B. & Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). Acts of Identity: Creole-based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge University Press.
• Lüdi, G. & Py, B. (1986). Être bilingue, devenir bilingue, Berne : Peter Lang (2003).
• Mackey, W. F. (1976). Bilinguisme et contact des langues. Paris : Klincksieck, Linguistique (nouvelle édition 2000).
• Mackey, W. F. (1997). Bilinguisme. In : Moreau, M. L. (éd.), Sociolinguistique. Concepts de base. Bruxelles : Mardaga, 61-64. Macnamara, J. (1970). Bilingualism and thought. In: Alatis, J. (éd.), Georgetown University 21st Annual Round Table, 25-40. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
• Meisel, J. M. (1990). INFL-ection: Subjects and subject-verb agreement. In: Meisel, J. M. (ed), Two first languages: Early grammatical development in bilingual children, Dordrecht: Foris.
• Prohic, A. et Varro, G. (2007). Se transplanter oui, mais à quel prix ? In : Education et Sociétés Plurilingues, n°23, 102-106.
• Rezzoug, D., De Plaën, S., Bensekhar- Bennabi, M. & Moro, M-A. (2007). Bilinguisme chez les enfants de migrants, mythes et réalités. In : Armand Colin, Le Français aujourd’hui, 158 (3), 58-65. http://www.cairn.info/revue-le-francais-aujourd-hui-2007-3-page-58.htm (11.10.2020).
• Rollan, F. & Sourou, F. (2006). Les migrants Turcs de France, Entre repli et ouverture, Pessac : Maison des Sciences de l’Homme d’Aquitaine.
• Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed., 1995).
• Siguan, M. & Mackey, W.F. (1986). Education et bilinguisme. Paris, Unesco : Delachaux et Niestlé.
• Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1984). Bilingualism or not: The education of minorities. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Soffieti, J. (1960). Bilingualism and biculturalism. The Modern Language Journal, 44, 275-277.
• Swain, M. (1972). Bilingualism as a first language, Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Irvine.
• Swain, M. & Cummins, J. (1979). Bilingualism, cognitive functioning and education. In: Language Teaching and Linguistics Abstracts, n°12, 4-18.
• Tabouret-Keller, A. (1990). La famille et le bilinguisme. In : Education et Pédagogies, n°8, Sèvres, CIEP, 15-20.
• Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Science Information, 13, 65-93.
• Titone, R. (1972). Le bilinguisme précoce. Bruxelles : Charles Dessart.
• Tosi, A. (1982). Mother tongue teaching for the children of migrants. In: Kinsella, V. (ed.), Surveys 1, Cambridge Language Teaching Surveys. Cambridge University Press.
• Toukomaa, P. & Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1977). The intensive teaching of the mother tongue to migrant children of pre-school age and children in the lower level of comprehensive school. Helsinki: The Finnish National Commission for UNESCO.
• Türk Dil Kurumu Sözlükleri (2019). Güncel Türkçe Sözlük. https://sozluk.gov.tr/ (25.10.2020).
• Tylor, E. B. (1873). Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom. London: John Murray.
• Varro, G. (2004). Sociologie de la mixité. De la mixité amoureuse aux mixités sociales et culturelles, Paris : Berlin.
• Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Whorf, B. (1956). Language, Thought and Reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Yağmur, K. (2007). İki Dilli Çocukların Dil Becerilerinin Ölçümü ve Eşik Kuramı. Dil Dergisi, 135, 60-76.
• Yağmur, K. & Akıncı, M.-A. (2003). Language use, choice, maintenance and ethnolinguistic vitality of Turkish speakers in France: Intergenerational differences. In: International Journal of the Sociology of Language, n°164, 107-128.