Use of Fluorescent Nanoparticles in Biomaterial Applications

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 15 Sayı: 4, 1513 - 1529

Shanli Salahi , Canser Gül , Sevda Albayrak

https://doi.org/10.21597/jist.1650643

Öz

Biomaterials are a general category of biocompatible materials used in the treatment of bone and tissue injuries, as well as in the diagnosis of diseases and bacteria. Fluorescent nanoparticles (FNPs) stand out for their high quantum efficiency and optical properties. The prepared review study is a work that includes the details of the use of FNP in biomaterial applications and current applications in the literature. The study encompasses the structure and properties of FNP, the parameters related to brightness, quantum efficiency, and lifespan, as well as the entirety of design and application-related uses. In addition, it particularly focuses on topics such as bioimaging, diagnostics, drug release, and tissue engineering in regenerative medicine within biomaterial applications. Toxicity and biocompatibility assessments in fluorescent biomaterial studies are also among the subtopics included in this study. The toxicity and biocompatibility of nanoparticles (NP) require a complex evaluation process. In this context, the properties and interactions of the materials used play a critical role in determining their effects on biological systems. The toxicity levels of FNP depend on both biological effects and the physical properties of the materials.

Anahtar Kelimeler

FluorescentNPs , Biomaterials , Biosensors , Drug delivery , Tissue engineering

Biyomalzeme Uygulamalarında Floresans Nanopartikül Kullanımı

Öz

Biyomalzemeler, kemik ve doku hasarlarının tedavisinde, hastalık ve bakteri tanısında kullanılan biyouyumlu malzemelerin genelidir. Floresans nanopartiküller (FNP) ise, yüksek kuantum verimi ve optik özellikleri ile dikkat çeker. Hazırlanan derleme çalışması, biyomalzeme uygulamalarında FNP kullanımının detaylarını ve literatürdeki güncel uygulamaları içeren bir çalışmadır. Çalışma, FNP yapı ve özelliklerini, parlaklık, kuantum verimi ve kullanım ömürlerinin hangi parametrelere bağlı olduğunu, tasarım ve kullanıma yönelik uygulamaların bütününü içerir. Bunların yanı sıra, özellikle biyomalzeme uygulamalarında biyogörüntüleme, teşhis, ilaç salınımı ve doku mühendisliği rejeneratif tıp konularına odaklanmıştır. Floresans biyomalzeme çalışmalarında toksisite ve biyouyumluluk değerlendirmeleri de bu çalışma içinde yer alan alt başlıklardan biridir. Nanopartiküllerin (NP) toksisitesi ve biyouyumluluğu karmaşık bir değerlendirme süreci gerektirir. Bu bağlamda, kullanılan malzemelerin özellikleri ve etkileşimleri, biyolojik sistemler üzerindeki etkilerini belirlemede kritik rol oynamaktadır. FNP toksisite seviyeleri, hem biyolojik etkilere hem de malzemenin fiziksel özelliklerine bağlıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Floresans NP , Biyomalzemeler , Biyosensörler , İlaç taşıma , Doku mühendisliği

Kaynakça

• Algar, W. R., Massey, M., Rees, K., Higgins, R., Krause, K. D., Darwish, G. H., Peveler, W. J., Xiao, Z., Tsai, H.-Y., Gupta, R., Lix, K., Tran, M. V., & Kim, H. 2021. "Photoluminescent Nanoparticles for Chemical and Biological Analysis and Imaging." Chem. Rev., 121(15), 9243–9358.
• Arroyo-Camejo, S., Adam, M.-P., Besbes, M., ve ark.,. 2013. "Stimulated emission depletion microscopy resolves individual nitrogen vacancy centers in diamond nanocrystals." ACS Nano 7(12), 10912–10919.
• Ashoka, A. H., Aparin, I. O., Reisch, A., & Klymchenko, A. S. 2023. "Brightness of Fluorescent Organic Nanomaterials." Chem. Soc. Rev., 52(14), 4525–4548.
• Baker, S. N., & Baker, G. A. 2010. "Luminescent carbon nanodots: emergent nanolights." Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 49(38), 6726–6744.
• Benson, C. R., Kacenauskaite, L., VanDenburgh, K. L., Zhao, W., Qiao, B., Sadhukhan, T., Pink, M., Chen, J., Borgi, S., Chen, C.-H., Davis, B. J., Simon, Y. C., Raghavachari, K., Laursen, B. W., & Flood, A. H. 2020. "Plug-and-Play Optical Materials from Fluorescent Dyes and Macrocycles." Chem, 6(8), 1978–1997.
• Bentzen, E. L., House, F., Utley, T. J., Crowe, J. E., Wright, D. W. 2005. "Progression of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection Monitored by Fluorescent Quantum Dot Probes." Nano Lett., 5 (4), 591–595.
• Betzig, E., Patterson, G. H., Sougrat, R., ve ark.,. 2006. "Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution." Science 313(5793), 1642–1645.
• Blau, R., Epshtein, Y., Pisarevsky, E., Tiram, G., Israeli Dangoor, S., Yeini, E., Krivitsky, A., Eldar-Boock, A., Ben-Shushan, D., Gibori, H., Scomparin, A., Green, O., Ben-Nun, Y., Merquiol, E., Doron, H., Blum, G., Erez, N., Grossman, R., Ram, Z., Shabat, D., & Satchi-Fainaro, R. 2018. "Image-Guided Surgery Using Near-Infrared Turn-ON Fluorescent Nanoprobes for Precise Detection of Tumor Margins." Theranostics, 8(13), 3437–3460.
• Bogart, L. K., Pourroy, G., Murphy, C. J., ve ark.,. 2014. "Nanoparticles for imaging, sensing, and therapeutic intervention." ACS Nano 8(4), 3107–3122.
• Bozdoğan, B. 2023. "Gözenekli Film – Peptit Nanopartikül Hibrit Yapıların İlaç Salımı Yapan Yara Örtü Malzemesi Olarak Değerlendirilmesi." Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 13(2), 1120-1133.
• Burns, A., Sengupta, P., Zedayko, T., Baird, B., Wiesner, U. 2006. "Core/Shell Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles for Chemical Sensing: Towards Single-Particle Laboratories." Small 2, 723–726.
• Chakraborty, G., Bhattarai, A., & De, R. 2022. "Polyelectrolyte–Dye Interactions: An Overview." Polymers, 14(3), 598.
• Chatterjee, K., Pratiwi, F. W., Wu, F. C. M., Chen, P., Chen, B.-C. 2018. "Recent progress in light sheet microscopy for biological applications." Appl. Spectrosc. 72(8), 1137–1169.
• Chen, B.-C., Legant, W. R., Wang, K., ve ark.,. 2014. "Lattice light-sheet microscopy: imaging molecules to embryos at high spatiotemporal resolution." Science 346(6208), 1257998.
• Çetin, K., & Şarkaya, K. 2024. "Drug Delivery Based on Nanoparticulate Systems." Düzce University Journal of Science and Technology, 12(4), 1993–2015.
• Çetin, K., Şarkaya, K., & Denizli, A. 2023. "Clinical Applications and Future Clinical Trials of the Drug Delivery System." In Nanotechnology for Drug Delivery and Pharmaceuticals, R. P. Singh, J. Singh, K. R. Singh, & C. O. Adetunji (Eds.), Elsevier, pp. 259–294.
• Dallas, P., Sharma, V. K., Zboril, R. 2011. "Silver polymeric nanocomposites as advanced antimicrobial agents: Classification, synthetic paths, applications, and perspectives." Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 166, 119–135.
• Duan, Q. Q., Ma, Y., Che, M. X., Zhang, B. Y., Zhang, Y. X., Li, Y., Zhang, W. D., Sang, S. B. 2019. "Fluorescent Carbon Dots as Carriers for Intracellular Doxorubicin Delivery and Track." J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol., 49, 527–533.
• Frank, D., ve ark.,. 2014. "Overview of the Role of Nanotechnological Innovations in the Detection and Treatment of Solid Tumors." International Journal of Nanomedicine, p. 589.
• Fröhlich, E. 2012. "The role of surface charge in cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of medical nanoparticles." Int. J. Nanomed. 7, 5577.
• Ganguly, S., Das, P., Parameswaranpillai, J., Maity, P. P. 2023. "Editorial: Fluorescent nanomaterials for biomedical applications." Front. Mater. 10.
• Grebenik, E. A., Nadort, A., Generalova, A. N., Nechaev, A. V., Sreenivasan, V. K., Khaydukov, E. V., Semchishen, V. A., Popov, A. P., Sokolov, V. I., Akhmanov, A. S., Zubov, V. P., Klinov, D. V., Panchenko, V. Y., Deyev, S. M., Zvyagin, A. V. 2013. "Feasibility study of the optical imaging of a breast cancer lesion labeled with upconversion nanoparticle biocomplexes." J. Biomed. Opt., 18, 76004.
• Hasan, A., Morshed, M., Memic, A., Hassan, S., Webster, T. J., Marei, H. E.-S. 2018. "Nanoparticles in tissue engineering: Applications, challenges and prospects." International Journal of Nanomedicine 13, 5637–5655.
• Hauck, T. S., Anderson, R. E., Fischer, H. C., Newbigging, S., Chan, W. C. W. 2010. "In vivo Quantum-Dot Toxicity Assessment." Small 6, 138–144.
• Hell, S. W., Wichmann, J. 1994. "Breaking the diffraction resolution limit by stimulated emission: stimulated-emission-depletion fluorescence microscopy." Opt. Lett. 19(11), 780–782.
• Huang, B., Bates, M., Zhuang, X. 2009. "Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy." Ann. Rev. Biochem. 78(1), 993–1016.
• Hwang, E. S., Cao, C., Hong, S., Jung, H. J., Cha, C. Y., Choi, J. B., Kim, Y. J., Baik, S. 2006. "The DNA hybridization assay using single-walled carbon nanotubes as ultrasensitive, long-term optical labels." Nanotechnolog, 17, 3442–3445.
• Jiang, X., Röcker, C., Hafner, M., Brandholt, S., Dörlich, R.M., Nienhaus, G.U. 2010. "Endo-and exocytosis of zwitterionic quantum dot nanoparticles by live HeLa cells." ACS Nano, 4(11), 6787–6797.
• Kacenauskaite, L., Stenspil, S. G., Olsson, A. H., Flood, A. H., & Laursen, B. W. 2022. "Universal Concept for Bright, Organic, Solid-State Emitters–Doping of Small-Molecule Ionic Isolation Lattices with FRET Acceptors." J. Am. Chem. Soc., 144(43), 19981–19989.
• Kievit, F. M., Zhang, M. 2011. "Cancer Nanotheranostics: Improving Imaging and Therapy by Targeted Delivery Across Biological Barriers." Adv. Mater. 23, 217.
• Klymchenko, A. S., Liu, F., Collot, M., & Anton, N. 2021. "Dye-Loaded Nanoemulsions: Biomimetic Fluorescent Nanocarriers for Bioimaging and Nanomedicine." Advanced Healthcare Materials, 10(1), 2001289.
• Klymchenko, A. S., Roger, E., Anton, N., Anton, H., Shulov, I., Vermot, J., Mely, Y., & Vandamme, T. F. 2012. "Highly Lipophilic Fluorescent Dyes in Nano-Emulsions: Towards Bright Non-Leaking Nano-Droplets." RSC Advances, 2(31), 11876–11886.
• Korin, N., Kanapathipillai, M., Matthews, B. D., Crescente, M., Brill, A., Mammoto, T., Ghosh, K., Jurek, S., Bencherif, S. A., Bhatta, D., et al. 2012. "Shear-Activated Nanotherapeutics for Drug Targeting to Obstructed Blood Vessels." Science, 337, 738–742.
• Kuo, C. W., Chueh, D.-Y., Chen, P. 2019. "Real-time in vivo imaging of subpopulations of circulating tumor cells using antibody conjugated quantum dots." J. Nanobiotechnol. 17(1), 26.
• Lee, K. J., Nallathamby, P. D., Browning, L. M., Osgood, C. J., Xu, X.-H. N. 2007. "In Vivo Imaging of Transport and Biocompatibility of Single Silver Nanoparticles in Early Development of Zebrafish Embryos." ACS Nano 1, 133–143.
• Li, K., Liu, B. 2012. "Polymer encapsulated conjugated polymer nanoparticles for fluorescence bioimaging." J. Mater. Chem. 22, 1257–1264.
• Li, S. Q., Pan, R. F., Mehdi, Y. A., Xiao, D. L., & He, H. 2015. "One-step spontaneous synthesis of fluorescent carbon nanoparticles with thermosensitivity from polyethylene glycol." New Journal of Chemistry, 39(9), 7033–7039.
• Li, W., Kaminski Schierle, G. S., Lei, B., Liu, Y., Kaminski, C. F. 2022. "Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Super-Resolution Imaging." Chem. Rev. 122 (15), 12495–12543.
• Li, X. M., Wang, R., Zhang, F., & Zhao, D. Y. 2014. "Engineering homogeneous doping in single nanoparticle to enhance upconversion efficiency." Nano Letters, 14, 3634–3639.
• Li, X. W., Chen, L. G. 2016. "Fluorescence Probe Based on an Amino-Functionalized Fluorescent Magnetic Nanocomposite for Detection of Folic Acid in Serum." ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 8 (46), 31832–31840.
• Liu, H., Xu, C. T., & Andersson-Engels, S. 2014. "Potential of multi-photon upconversion emissions for fluorescence diffuse optical imaging." Optics Express, 22, 17782–17790.
• Lunardi, C. N., Gomes, A. J., Palepu, S., Galwaduge, P. T., Hillman, E. M. C. 2017. "PLGA Nano/Microparticles Loaded with Cresyl Violet as a Tracer for Drug Delivery: Characterization and In-Situ Hyperspectral Fluorescence and 2-Photon Localization." Mater. Sci. Eng. C, 70, 505–511.
• Lux, F., Zeisler, R. 1974. "Investigations of the corrosive deposition of components of metal implants and of the behaviour of biological trace elements in metallosis tissue by means of instrumental multi-element activation analysis." J. Radioanal Nucl Chem. 19(2), 289–297.
• Ma, K., Sai, H., Wiesner, U. 2012. "Ultrasmall sub-10 nm near-infrared fluorescent mesoporous silica nanoparticles." Chem. Soc. 4, 13180–13183.
• Mader, H. S., Li, X., Saleh, S. M., Link, M., Kele, P., Wolfbeis, O. S. 2008. "Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles." Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1130, 218–223; Saleh, S. M., Ali, R., Wolfbeis, O. S. 2011. Microchim. Acta 174, 429–434.
• Malode, S. J., Shetti, N. P. 2023. "Carbon dots-based electrochemical sensors." Carbon Dots Anal. Chem. 2023, 109–136. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-98350-1.00024-4.
• Marcon, L., Riquet, F., Vicogne, D., Szunerits, S., Bodart, J.-F., Boukherroub, R. 2010. "Cellular and in vivo toxicity of functionalized nanodiamond in Xenopus embryo." J. Mater. Chem. 20, 8064–8069.
• Martirosyan, A., Bazes, A., Schneider, Y.-J. 2014. "In vitro toxicity assessment of silver nanoparticles in the presence of phenolic compounds – preventive agents against the harmful effect?" Nanotoxicology 8, 573–582.
• Mittal, A. K., Chisti, Y., Banerjee, U. C. 2013. "Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plant extracts." Biotechnol. Adv. 31, 346–356.
• Mongin, O., Krishna, T. R., Werts, M. H. V., Caminade, A.-M., Majoral, J.-P., Blanchard-Desce, M. 2006. "A modular approach to two-photon absorbing organic nanodots: brilliant dendrimers as an alternative to semiconductor quantum dots?" Chem. Commun. 915–917.
• Moore, L., Grobárová, V., Shen, H., Man, H. Bin, Mícˇová, J., Ledvina, M., Štursa, J., Nesladek, M., Fišerová, A., Ho, D. 2014. "Comprehensive interrogation of the cellular response to fluorescent, detonation and functionalized nanodiamonds." Nanoscale 6, 11712–11721.
• Nannuri, S. H., Pandey, A., Kulkarni, S., Deshmukh, P. K., George, S. D., Mutalik, S. 2023. "A new paradigm in biosensing: MOF-carbon dot conjugates." Mater. Today Commun. 35, 106340.
• Nozik, A.J., Beard, M.C., Luther, J.M., Law, M., Ellingson, R.J., Johnson, J.C. 2010. "Semiconductor quantum dots and quantum dot arrays and applications of multiple exciton generation to third-generation photovoltaic solar cells." Chem Rev, 110(11), 6873–6890.
• Özen, M., Daş, R., Açıkgöz, A., Aktaş, B., Demircan, G., Hançer, L. N., & Balak, M. V. 2022. "Grafen-Si₃N₄ Takviyeli Hidroksiapatit Nanokompozitlerin Mekanik ve Yapısal Özellikleri." Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 12(2), 978-989.
• Peng, H. S., Chiu, D. T. 2015. "Soft fluorescent nanomaterials for biological and biomedical imaging." Chem. Soc. Rev. 44(14), 4699–4722.
• Pratiwi, F. W., Kuo, C. W., Chen, B. C., Chen, P. 2019. "Recent Advances in the Use of Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Bioimaging." Nanomedicine 14(13), 857–862.
• Pratiwi, F. W., Kuo, C. W., Wu, S. H., Chen, Y. P., Mou, C. Y., Chen, P. 2018. "Chapter six– the bioimaging applications of mesoporous silica nanoparticles." Enzymes 43, 123–153.
• Progatzky, F., Dallman, M. J., Lo Celso, C. 2013. "From seeing to believing: labeling strategies for in vivo cell-tracking experiments." Interface Focus 3(3), 20130001.
• Qin, D. L., He, X. X., Wang, K. M., Tan, W. H. 2008. "Using Fluorescent Nanoparticles and SYBR Green I Based Two-Color Flow Cytometry to Determine Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Avoiding False Positives." Biosens. Bioelectron., 24 (4), 626–631.
• Reineck, P., & Gibson, B. C. 2017. "Near-Infrared Fluorescent Nanomaterials for Bioimaging and Sensing." Adv. Opt. Mater., 5(2), 1600446.
• Reisch, A., & Klymchenko, A. S. 2016. "Fluorescent Polymer Nanoparticles Based on Dyes: Seeking Brighter Tools for Bioimaging." Small, 12(15), 1968–1992.
• Roach, S. G. 2023. "Fluorescent biosensing of methamphetamines using malic acid, polyethyleneimine derived carbon dots incorporated with DNA aptamer." Macomb, IL: Western Illinois University.
• Rust, M. J., Bates, M., Zhuang, X. 2006. "Sub-diffraction-limit imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM)." Nat. Methods 3, 793.
• Salahi, S., Ghaffari, T. 2024. "Antibacterial efficacy of green synthesized silver nanoparticles from rosemary, pennyroyal, and eucalyptus extracts against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria." Synthesis and Sintering 4(2).
• Sangubotla, R., Kim, J. 2023. "Enzyme-based fluorometric biosensor based on coffee waste-derived carbon dots modified with APBA and NADP+ cofactor for selective dual detection of γ-aminobutyric acid in in vitro and in vivo models." Ceram. Int. 49(3), 4356–4364.
• Schnabel, C., Herpers, U., Michel, R., Löer, F., Buchhorn, G., Willert, H.-G. 1994. "Changes of concentrations of the elements Co, Cr, Sb, and Sc in tissues of persons with joint implants." In: Kučera, J., Obrusník, I., Sabbioni, E. (editors). Nuclear Analytical Methods in the Life Sciences. Springer; 389–395.
• Schrand, A. M., Huang, H., Carlson, C., Schlager, J. J., O−sawa, E., Hussain, S. M., Dai, L. 2006. "Are diamond nanoparticles cytotoxic?" J. Phys. Chem. B 111, 2 . Sensenig, R., Sapir, Y., MacDonald, C., Cohen, S., Polyak, B. 2012. "Magnetic nanoparticle-based approaches to locally target therapy and enhance tissue regeneration in vivo." Nanomedicine (Lond.) 7(9), 1425–1442.
• Shang, L., Nienhaus, K., Nienhaus, G. U. 2014. "Engineered nanoparticles interacting with cells: size matters." J. Nanobiotechnol. 12, 5.
• Stenspil, S. G., & Laursen, B. W. 2024. "Photophysics of Fluorescent Nanoparticles Based on Organic Dyes – Challenges and Design Principles." Chemical Science, 15(23), 8625–8638.
• Strauss, S., Nickels, P. C., Strauss, M. T., ve ark.,. 2018. "Modified aptamers enable quantitative sub-10-nm cellular DNA–PAINT imaging." Nat. Methods 15(9), 685–688.
• Sun, L.-D., Wang, Y.-F., & Yan, C.-H. 2014. "Paradigms and challenges for bioapplication of rare earth upconversion luminescent nanoparticles: Small size and tunable emission/excitation spectra." Accounts of Chemical Research, 47, 1001–1009.
• Tao, Z., Hong, G., Shinji, C., Chen, C., Diao, S., Antaris, A. L., Zhang, B., Zou, Y., & Dai, H. 2013. "Biological Imaging Using Nanoparticles of Small Organic Molecules with Fluorescence Emission at Wavelengths Longer than 1000 nm." Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 52(49), 13002–13006.
• Tay, C. Y., Yu, Y., Setyawati, M. I., Xie, J., Leong, D. T. 2014. "Presentation matters: Identity of gold nanocluster capping agent governs intracellular uptake and cell metabolism." Nano Res. 7, 805–815.
• Tenzer, S., Docter, D., Rosfa, S., Wlodarski, A., Kuharev, J., Rekik, A., Knauer, S. K., Bantz, C., Nawroth, T., Bier, C., Sirirattanapan, J., Mann, W., Treuel, L., Zellner, R., Maskos, M., Schild, H., & Stauber, R. H. 2011. "Nanoparticle Size Is a Critical Physicochemical Determinant of the Human Blood Plasma Corona: A Comprehensive Quantitative Proteomic Analysis." ACS Nano, 5(9), 7155–7167.
• Thakur, A., Kumar, A. 2023. "Carbon dots in biosensing. Carbon dots in biology: synthesis, properties." In Biological and pharmaceutical applications. Milton Park: Routledge, 43.
• Tian, G., Gu, Z., Zhou, L., Yin, W., Liu, L., Yan, L., Jin, S., Ren, W., Xing, G., Li, S., & Zhao, Y. 2012. "Mn²⁺ dopant-controlled synthesis of NaYF₄:Yb/Er upconversion nanoparticles for in vivo imaging and drug delivery." Advanced Materials, 24, 1226–1231.
• Tuerhong, M., Yang, X., Xue-Bo, Y. 2017. "Review on carbon dots and their applications." Chin. J. Anal. Chem. 45(1), 139–150. doi:10.1016/s1872-2040(16)60990-8.
• Vargas-Nadal, G., Köber, M., Nsamela, A., Terenziani, F., Sissa, C., Pescina, S., Sonvico, F., Gazzali, A. M., Wahab, H. A., Grisanti, L., Olivera, M. E., Palena, M. C., Guzman, M. L., Luciani-Giacobbe, L. C., Jimenez-Kairuz, A., Ventosa, N., Ratera, I., Belfield, K. D., & Maoz, B. M. 2022. "Fluorescent Multifunctional Organic Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery and Bioimaging: A Tutorial Review." Pharmaceutics, 14(11), 2498.
• Villanueva, A., Cañete, M., Roca, A. G., Calero, M., Veintemillas-Verdaguer, S., Serna, C. J., Morales, M. D. P., Miranda, R. 2009. "The influence of surface functionalization on the enhanced internalization of magnetic nanoparticles in cancer cells." Nanotechnology 20, 115103.
• Wang, J., Wang, F., Wang, C., Liu, Z., & Liu, X. G. 2011. "Single-band upconversion emission in lanthanide-doped KMnF₃ nanocrystals." Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 50, 10369–10372.
• Weissleder, R., Nahrendorf, M., Pittet, M. J. 2014. "Imaging macrophages with nanoparticles." Nat. Mater. 13, 125.
• Whitlow, J., Pacelli, S., Paul, A. 2017. "Multifunctional nanodiamonds in regenerative medicine: Recent advances and future directions. Journal of controlled release." Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society, 261, 62–86.
• Wicki, A., Witzigmann, D., Balasubramanian, V., & Huwyler, J. 2015. "Nanomedicine in Cancer Therapy: Challenges, Opportunities, and Clinical Applications." Journal of Controlled Release, 200, 138–157.
• Winnik, F. M., Maysinger, D. 2013. "Accounts of chemical research." Acc. Chem. Res. 46, 672–680.
• Wolfbeis, O. S. 2015. "An overview of nanoparticles commonly used in fluorescent bioimaging." Chem. Soc. Rev. 44(14), 4743–4768.
• Wu, C., Hansen, S. J., Hou, Q., Yu, J., Zeigler, M., Jin, Y., Burnham, D. R., McNeill, J. D., Olson, J. M., Chiu, D. T. 2011. "Design of Highly Emissive Polymer Dot Bioconjugates for In Vivo Tumor Targeting." Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 50, 3430–3434.
• Xiao, D., Qi, H., Teng, Y., Pierre, D., Kutoka, P.T., Liu, D. 2021. "Advances and challenges of fluorescent nanomaterials for synthesis and biomedical applications." Nanoscale Research Letters, 16, 167.
• Xu, X., Ray, R., Gu, Y., Ploehn, H. J., Gearheart, L., Raker, K., & Scrivens, W. A. 2004. "Electrophoretic analysis and purification of fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotube fragments." Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126(40), 12736–12737.
• Yanez, C. O., Morales, A. R., Yue, X., Urakami, T., Komatsu, M., Järvinen, T. A. H., & Belfield, K. D. 2013. "Deep Vascular Imaging in Wounds by Two-Photon Fluorescence Microscopy." PLOS ONE, 8(7), e67559.
• Yao, B., Huang, H., Liu, Y., Kang, Z. 2019. "Carbon dots: a small conundrum." Trends Chem. 1(2), 235–246. doi:10.1016/j.trechm.2019.02.003.
• Yavuz, H., Çetin, K., Akgönüllü, S., Battal, D., & Denizli, A. 2018. "Therapeutic Protein and Drug Imprinted Nanostructures as Controlled Delivery Tools." In Design and Development of New Nanocarriers, A. M. Grumezescu (Ed.), William Andrew Publishing, pp. 439–473.
• Yu, T., Malugin, A., Ghandehari, H. 2011. "Impact of Silica Nanoparticle Design on Cellular Toxicity and Hemolytic Activity." ACS Nano 5, 5717.
• Zhao, Y. S., Fu, H., Peng, A., Ma, Y., Xiao, D., & Yao, J. 2008. "Low-Dimensional Nanomaterials Based on Small Organic Molecules: Preparation and Optoelectronic Properties." Advanced Materials, 20(15), 2859–2876.
• Zhou, H., Lv, X., Zhang, L., Gong, A., Wu, A., Liang, Z., Peng, G., Lin, H. 2014. "A facile and in situ approach to fluorescent mesoporous silica and its applications in sensing and bioimaging." J. Mater. Chem. C 2, 9625–9630.
• Zhu, L., Ang, S., Liu, W. T. 2004. "Quantum Dots as a Novel Immunofluorescent Detection System for Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia." Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 70 (1), 597–598.
• Zhu, Y., Li, J., Li, W., Zhang, Y., Yang, X., Chen, N., Sun, Y., Zhao, Y., Fan, C., Huang, Q. 2012. "The Biocompatibility of Nanodiamonds and Their Application in Drug Delivery Systems." Theranostics 2, 302–312.
• Zuo, P. L., Lu, X. H., Sun, Z. G., Guo, Y. H., & He, H. 2016. "A review on syntheses, properties, characterization and bioanalytical applications of fluorescent carbon dots." Microchimica Acta, 183(2), 519–542.