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The Story of Circassian Tobacco

Yıl 2018, , 253 - 290, 21.06.2018
https://doi.org/10.21488/jocas.428805

Öz

This
article explores the story of Circassian tobacco by connecting
local developments in Circassia with global
markets in the 18th and 19th centuries
. Since the
17th century, European travellers described production, usage, and
trade of Circassian tobacco. The 1807 Constitution of Kabarda (Eastern
Circassia) prohibited tobacco for religious reasons; while the Russian conquest,
in 1864 ended tobacco growing traditions and culture in Western Circassia. But
the Russian settlers inherited the indigenous tobacco culture after they
occupied the villages and houses left by the deported Circassians and brought
it to a new level. Circassians produced a special brand of tobacco for export,
known as O
zereg.
Circassian tobacco successfully competed with Virginian tobacco from the year
1700 onwards, after the czar relaxed the ban on Russian trade with the Caucasus. In 1723, Russia
started producing a new kind of Circassian tobacco known as
cherkassky
tabak in Ukraine.
The Circassian tobacco competed with the Chinese tobacco in Western Siberia and
with Californian tobacco in Alaska.
Circassian tobacco became an exchange currency among the Native Siberians and
Native Americans. This kind of Circassian tobacco became known as extremely bad
for health thanks to the saltpeter added to it in order to preserve it. In the United States,
tobacco manufacturer Pierre Lorillard introduced a new tobacco brand which he
claimed was real Circassian tobacco, exploiting the exotic image of Circassian
females.

Kaynakça

  • Abitov, M.L., Apazhev, M.L., Bagov N.A. (eds). Adigebze Psalhalhe [Circassian Dictionary]. Moscow: Digora, 1999.
  • Abramov, Ya. Caucasus Mountaineers [Kavkazskie Gortsy]. Krasnodar: Izdanie Onshschestva Izucheniia Adygeiskoi Avtonomnoi Oblasti, 1927.
  • Alexandrov, V.A. Rossiia Na Dal’nevostochnykh Rubezhakh (Vtoraia Polovina XVII v.) [Russia at the Far- Eastern Borders: The Second Half of the 17th Century]. Khabarovsk, Russia: Knizhnoe Izdatel’stvo, 1984.
  • Appleby, J. H. “James Spilman, F.R.S. (1680-1763), and Anglo-Russian Commerce.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 48:1 (January, 1994): 17-29.
  • Atalikov, Vyacheslav M. Nasha Starina [Our Old Times]. Nalchik, Russia: Elbrus, 1996.
  • Bell, James Stanislaus. Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839. Volume 2. London: E. Moxon, 1840.
  • Besleneev, A.D. “About the Agriculture Between Mountaineers of Kuban Oblast, in 1870s through 1890s” [O Zemledelii U Gortsev Kubanskoi Oblasti]. Academic Papers of the Adygean Scientific Research Institute 13 (1971): 401-406.
  • Billings, E.R. Tobacco: Its history, Varieties, Culture, Manufacture and Commerce, with an Account of its Various Modes of Use, From its First Discovery Until Now. Hartford, CN: American Publishing Co, 1875.
  • Blaramberg, Johann. Istoricheskoe, Topograficheskoe I Voennoe Opisanie Kavkaza [Historic, Topographic, and Military Descriptions of the Caucasus]. Nalchik, Russia: El-Fa, 1999.
  • Boguslavsky, V.V. Slavyanskaya Entsiklopedia. XVII Vek [Slavic Encyclopedia. 17th Century]. V. 1 (A-M). Moscow: Olma-Press, 2004,
  • Bondar, Nikolai I. “Chto My Znaem Drug O Druge? Etnografichskii Ocherk O Narodakh Kubani” [What Do We Know About Each Other? Ethnographic Essay About the Peoples of Kuban]. Kubansky Kraeved, 2 (1990): 140-151.
  • Bonsor, N.R.P. and J.H. Isherwood. North Atlantic Seaway: An Illustrated History of the Passenger Services Linking the Old World with the New. V.1. New York: Arco Publishing Company INC, 1975.
  • Brockhaus, F.A. and I.A. Efron, “Severskaia stanitsa” [Severskaia village]. F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron, eds. Entsiklopedichesky slovar Brockhausa I Efrona [Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]. http://www.vehi.net/brokgauz/index.html
  • Bronevsky, Semyon M. Noveishie Georgraficheskie I Istoricheckie Izvestiia o Kavkaze [Newest Geographic and Historic Materials About the Caucasus]. Nalchik, Russia: El-Fa, 1999.
  • Buhurov, Mukhamed F. Adyghe Heroic Fairy Tale [Adygskaia Bogatyrskaia Skazka. Nalchik: Izdatelsky Otdel KBIGI, 2015.
  • Butkov, P.G. Materials for the New History of the Caucasus from 1722 through 1803 [Materialy Dlya Novoi Istorii Kavkaza S 1722 Po 1803 God]. S.-Petersburg: Tipografiia Imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk, 1869.
  • Commercial Advertiser. “Circassian Lotion.” Commercial Advertiser. July 18, 1801.
  • Crosby, Alfred W. America, Russia, Hemp, and Napoleon: American Trade with Russia and the Baltic, 1783-1812. Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1965.
  • Dal, Vladimir I. Tolkovy Slovar Zhivago Velikorusskago Yazyka [Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language]. V. 3. S.-Petersburg and Moscow: Tovarishschestvo M.O. Volfa, 1907.
  • Dall, William H. Alaska and its Resources. Boston: Lee and Shepard. 1870.
  • Doroshenko, V.V. Torgovlya I Kupechestvo Rigi V 17 Veke [Trade and Merchants of Riga in the 17th Century]. Riga, Latvia: Zinante, 1985.
  • Evening Post. “Circassian Plaid.” The Evening Post. July 18, 1821.
  • Everard, Giles. Panacea, or, The Universal Medicine Being a Discovery of the Wonderful Virtues of Tobacco Taken in a Pipe. London: Printed for Simon Miller, 1659.
  • Ferrario, Jules. Le Costume Des Habitans Du Caboul, Du Tibet, De La Georgie, De La Circassie, De L'Ancienne Scythïe, De La Tartarie, De La Sibérie, Du Kamtschatka etc. Milan: De l'imprimerie de l'editeur, 1818.
  • Gibson, James R. “Russia in California, 1833: Report of Governor Wrangel.” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 60:4 (1969): 205-215.
  • Hari, Johann. Chasing the Scream: The First and Last Days of the War on Drugs. New York: Bloomsbury, 2015.
  • Hartwig, Georg. The Polar World: A Popular Description of Man and Nature in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions of the Globe. London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1869.
  • Hellie, Richard. The Economy and Material Culture of Russia. 1600-1725. Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1999.
  • Ides, Evert Ysbrants [Adam Brand]. Three Years Travel from Moscow Over-land to China. London: W. Freeman et al., 1706. - Cited from the Russian translation: Ides, Ysbrants, Adam Brand. Zapiski O Posol’stve v Kitai (1692-1695). Moscow: Glavnaia Redaktsiia Vostochnoi Literatury, 1967.
  • Illustrated London News. 3 June 1854. https://scontent-iad3-1.xx.fbcdn.net/v/t1.0-9/31284445_1789168317771506_7127572281538117632_n.jpg?_nc_cat=0&oh=a97f61663584fd84b8ec08df687bd970&oe=5B7F2A91 Kavkaz. “Istoricheskie Svedeniia O Mestakh, Na Kotorykh Postroen Gorod Petrovsk” [Historical Materials About the Place Where the Town of Pertovsk was Built]. Kavkaz, no. 147, December 14, 1869.
  • Kennan, George. Tent Life in Siberia: A New Account of an Old Tribes in Kamchatka and Northern Asia. New York and London: G.P.Puntam’s Sons Knickerpocker Press, 1910.
  • Kennan, George. A Russian Comedy of Errors. New York: The Century Co., 1915.
  • Kostomarov, Nikolai I. Russkaya Istoriia V Zhizneopisaniiakh Yeyo Glavneishikh Deyateley [Russian History Through Description of the Lives of its Most Important Actors]. V. 3. Moscow: Kniga I Biznes, 1992 (The reprinted editions, from 1873-1888).
  • Kozlov, Alexander. “Ekonomika Dona I Severnogo Kavkaza V Nachale XX Veka” [The Economy of Don and the North Caucasus in the 20th Century]. Rostovskaia Electronnaia Gazeta, no. 23, December 6, 1999, http://www.relga.ru/Environ/WebObjects/tgu-www.woa/wa/Main?textid=1908&level1=main&level2=articles
  • Krizhanich, Yury. Politika. [Poltics.] Moscow: Novy Svet, 1997.
  • Kumakhov, Mukhadin A. ed. The Circassian Encyclopedia. Moscow: Fond imeni B.Kh.Akbasheva, 2006.
  • Lorillard, Pierre. “Lorillard’s Circassian Tobacco,” Salem Gazette, February 18, 1812.
  • Los Angeles Times. “Kayser, Chiffon, Hosiery, Featuring ‘Marvel Stripe and Slipper Heel.” Los Angeles Times. July 20, 1926.
  • Mackie, J. Milton. Life of Shamyl and Narrative of the Circassian War of Independence Against Russia. Boston: John P. Jewett and Company, 1856.
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The Story of Circassian Tobacco [Çerkes Tütününün Tarihi]

Yıl 2018, , 253 - 290, 21.06.2018
https://doi.org/10.21488/jocas.428805

Öz

Bu makale Çerkes tütününün yerel gelişmeler
ve küresel marketler ilişkisinde tarihsel hikayesini araştırmaktadır. Avrupalı
gezginler 17'nci yüzyıldan bu yana Çerkes tütününün üretim, kullanım ve
ticaretini detaylıca anlatmışlardır. Kabarda (Doğu Çerkesya) 1807 Anayasası
dini nedenlerden dolayı tütünü yasaklamıştı. 1864'te Rus fethi Çerkes tütününün
kültürel geleneklerini sona erdirdi. Yine de sürgün edilen Çerkeslerin
yerlerini işgal eden
yeni Rus yerleşimciler onların bazı tütün içme gelenekleri miras aldılar.
1700'den itibaren Rusya'nın Kafkasya ile ticaret yasağını kaldırmasıyla, ucuz
Çerkes tütünü pahalı Virginia
tütünüyle başarılı bir şekilde rekabet etti. 1723'te Rusya Ukrayna'da, Batı
Sibirya'da Çin tütünüyle ve Alaska’da California
tütünüyle rekabet edebilen, kendi yeni Çerkes tütününü
(cherkassky tabak) üretmeye başladı.
Çerkes tütünü Sibirya’nın yerli halkı ve Amerikan yerlileri arasında para
yerine geçen bir değiş tokuş birimi haline geldi. Bu tür Çerkes tütünü, içine
koruyucu güherçile katıldığından sağlığa son derece zararlı olarak biliniyordu.
ABD'de tütün üreticisi Pierre Lorillard gerçek Çerkes tütünü olduğunu iddia
ettiği yeni bir Çerkes tütünü üretmiş ve Çerkes kadınlarının egzotik
görüntülerini de sömürmüştür.

Kaynakça

  • Abitov, M.L., Apazhev, M.L., Bagov N.A. (eds). Adigebze Psalhalhe [Circassian Dictionary]. Moscow: Digora, 1999.
  • Abramov, Ya. Caucasus Mountaineers [Kavkazskie Gortsy]. Krasnodar: Izdanie Onshschestva Izucheniia Adygeiskoi Avtonomnoi Oblasti, 1927.
  • Alexandrov, V.A. Rossiia Na Dal’nevostochnykh Rubezhakh (Vtoraia Polovina XVII v.) [Russia at the Far- Eastern Borders: The Second Half of the 17th Century]. Khabarovsk, Russia: Knizhnoe Izdatel’stvo, 1984.
  • Appleby, J. H. “James Spilman, F.R.S. (1680-1763), and Anglo-Russian Commerce.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 48:1 (January, 1994): 17-29.
  • Atalikov, Vyacheslav M. Nasha Starina [Our Old Times]. Nalchik, Russia: Elbrus, 1996.
  • Bell, James Stanislaus. Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839. Volume 2. London: E. Moxon, 1840.
  • Besleneev, A.D. “About the Agriculture Between Mountaineers of Kuban Oblast, in 1870s through 1890s” [O Zemledelii U Gortsev Kubanskoi Oblasti]. Academic Papers of the Adygean Scientific Research Institute 13 (1971): 401-406.
  • Billings, E.R. Tobacco: Its history, Varieties, Culture, Manufacture and Commerce, with an Account of its Various Modes of Use, From its First Discovery Until Now. Hartford, CN: American Publishing Co, 1875.
  • Blaramberg, Johann. Istoricheskoe, Topograficheskoe I Voennoe Opisanie Kavkaza [Historic, Topographic, and Military Descriptions of the Caucasus]. Nalchik, Russia: El-Fa, 1999.
  • Boguslavsky, V.V. Slavyanskaya Entsiklopedia. XVII Vek [Slavic Encyclopedia. 17th Century]. V. 1 (A-M). Moscow: Olma-Press, 2004,
  • Bondar, Nikolai I. “Chto My Znaem Drug O Druge? Etnografichskii Ocherk O Narodakh Kubani” [What Do We Know About Each Other? Ethnographic Essay About the Peoples of Kuban]. Kubansky Kraeved, 2 (1990): 140-151.
  • Bonsor, N.R.P. and J.H. Isherwood. North Atlantic Seaway: An Illustrated History of the Passenger Services Linking the Old World with the New. V.1. New York: Arco Publishing Company INC, 1975.
  • Brockhaus, F.A. and I.A. Efron, “Severskaia stanitsa” [Severskaia village]. F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron, eds. Entsiklopedichesky slovar Brockhausa I Efrona [Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]. http://www.vehi.net/brokgauz/index.html
  • Bronevsky, Semyon M. Noveishie Georgraficheskie I Istoricheckie Izvestiia o Kavkaze [Newest Geographic and Historic Materials About the Caucasus]. Nalchik, Russia: El-Fa, 1999.
  • Buhurov, Mukhamed F. Adyghe Heroic Fairy Tale [Adygskaia Bogatyrskaia Skazka. Nalchik: Izdatelsky Otdel KBIGI, 2015.
  • Butkov, P.G. Materials for the New History of the Caucasus from 1722 through 1803 [Materialy Dlya Novoi Istorii Kavkaza S 1722 Po 1803 God]. S.-Petersburg: Tipografiia Imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk, 1869.
  • Commercial Advertiser. “Circassian Lotion.” Commercial Advertiser. July 18, 1801.
  • Crosby, Alfred W. America, Russia, Hemp, and Napoleon: American Trade with Russia and the Baltic, 1783-1812. Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1965.
  • Dal, Vladimir I. Tolkovy Slovar Zhivago Velikorusskago Yazyka [Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language]. V. 3. S.-Petersburg and Moscow: Tovarishschestvo M.O. Volfa, 1907.
  • Dall, William H. Alaska and its Resources. Boston: Lee and Shepard. 1870.
  • Doroshenko, V.V. Torgovlya I Kupechestvo Rigi V 17 Veke [Trade and Merchants of Riga in the 17th Century]. Riga, Latvia: Zinante, 1985.
  • Evening Post. “Circassian Plaid.” The Evening Post. July 18, 1821.
  • Everard, Giles. Panacea, or, The Universal Medicine Being a Discovery of the Wonderful Virtues of Tobacco Taken in a Pipe. London: Printed for Simon Miller, 1659.
  • Ferrario, Jules. Le Costume Des Habitans Du Caboul, Du Tibet, De La Georgie, De La Circassie, De L'Ancienne Scythïe, De La Tartarie, De La Sibérie, Du Kamtschatka etc. Milan: De l'imprimerie de l'editeur, 1818.
  • Gibson, James R. “Russia in California, 1833: Report of Governor Wrangel.” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 60:4 (1969): 205-215.
  • Hari, Johann. Chasing the Scream: The First and Last Days of the War on Drugs. New York: Bloomsbury, 2015.
  • Hartwig, Georg. The Polar World: A Popular Description of Man and Nature in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions of the Globe. London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1869.
  • Hellie, Richard. The Economy and Material Culture of Russia. 1600-1725. Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1999.
  • Ides, Evert Ysbrants [Adam Brand]. Three Years Travel from Moscow Over-land to China. London: W. Freeman et al., 1706. - Cited from the Russian translation: Ides, Ysbrants, Adam Brand. Zapiski O Posol’stve v Kitai (1692-1695). Moscow: Glavnaia Redaktsiia Vostochnoi Literatury, 1967.
  • Illustrated London News. 3 June 1854. https://scontent-iad3-1.xx.fbcdn.net/v/t1.0-9/31284445_1789168317771506_7127572281538117632_n.jpg?_nc_cat=0&oh=a97f61663584fd84b8ec08df687bd970&oe=5B7F2A91 Kavkaz. “Istoricheskie Svedeniia O Mestakh, Na Kotorykh Postroen Gorod Petrovsk” [Historical Materials About the Place Where the Town of Pertovsk was Built]. Kavkaz, no. 147, December 14, 1869.
  • Kennan, George. Tent Life in Siberia: A New Account of an Old Tribes in Kamchatka and Northern Asia. New York and London: G.P.Puntam’s Sons Knickerpocker Press, 1910.
  • Kennan, George. A Russian Comedy of Errors. New York: The Century Co., 1915.
  • Kostomarov, Nikolai I. Russkaya Istoriia V Zhizneopisaniiakh Yeyo Glavneishikh Deyateley [Russian History Through Description of the Lives of its Most Important Actors]. V. 3. Moscow: Kniga I Biznes, 1992 (The reprinted editions, from 1873-1888).
  • Kozlov, Alexander. “Ekonomika Dona I Severnogo Kavkaza V Nachale XX Veka” [The Economy of Don and the North Caucasus in the 20th Century]. Rostovskaia Electronnaia Gazeta, no. 23, December 6, 1999, http://www.relga.ru/Environ/WebObjects/tgu-www.woa/wa/Main?textid=1908&level1=main&level2=articles
  • Krizhanich, Yury. Politika. [Poltics.] Moscow: Novy Svet, 1997.
  • Kumakhov, Mukhadin A. ed. The Circassian Encyclopedia. Moscow: Fond imeni B.Kh.Akbasheva, 2006.
  • Lorillard, Pierre. “Lorillard’s Circassian Tobacco,” Salem Gazette, February 18, 1812.
  • Los Angeles Times. “Kayser, Chiffon, Hosiery, Featuring ‘Marvel Stripe and Slipper Heel.” Los Angeles Times. July 20, 1926.
  • Mackie, J. Milton. Life of Shamyl and Narrative of the Circassian War of Independence Against Russia. Boston: John P. Jewett and Company, 1856.
  • Marigny, Edouard Taitbout de. Voyage en Circassie. Bruxelles: J. Dekeyn, 1821. (The pictures in the text are cited from this edition).
  • Marigny, Taitbout de. Three Voyages in the Black Sea to the Coast of Circassia. London: John Murray, 1837.
  • Masterson, James R. and Helen Brower. Bering's Successors, 1745-1780. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1948.
  • Meri, Lennart Georg. Most V Beloe Bezmolvie [Bridge to the White Silence]. Moscow: Sovetsky pisatel, 1984.
  • Metropolitan Museum of Art. Circassian. https://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/dp/web-large/DP838626.jpg
  • The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Odalisque. https://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/dp/web-large/DP838664.jpg Montpéreux, Frédéric Dubois de. Voyage Autour du Caucase, Chez les Tscherkesses et les Abkhases, en Colchide, en Géorgie, en Arménie et en Crimée. Tome 1. Paris: Librairie de Gide, 1839.
  • Morell, John Raynell. Russia and England: Their Strength and Weakness. Riker, Thorne & Co.: New York, 1854.
  • Mottraye, Aubry de La. Travels through Europe, Asia, and into Part of Africa. Volume 2. London: Printed, and sold by Mr. Round, 1730.
  • Narochnitsky, A.L. ed. Istoriia Narodov Severnogo Kavkaza (Konets XVIII v. -1917 g.) [A History of the Peoples of the North Caucasus (From the end of the eighteenth century through to 1917)]. Moscow: Nauka, 1988.
  • New York Daily Times. “Non-Arrival of The Circassian.” New York Daily Times July 20, 1857.
  • New York Mercury. “Books.” New York Mercury, July 20, 1761.
  • New York Times. “Ten days in the Arctic.” The New York Times. December 6, 1880,
  • New York Times. “Shipping and the Mails.” New York Times, July 29, 1897.
  • New York Times. “January Linen Sale.” New York Times. January 13, 1930.
  • Nogma, Shora B. Filologicheskie Trudy [Philological Works]. V.1, Nalchik, Russia: Kabardinskoe knizhnoe izdatelstvo, 1956, p. 201; V. 2, Nalchik, Russia: Kabardino-Balkarskoe knizhnoe izdatelstvo, 1958.
  • Nogmov, Shora B. Istoriia Adykheiskogo Naroda [A History of Circassian People]. Nalchik, Russia: Elbrus, 1994.
  • Northern Whig. “Circassian Eye Water.” Northern Whig. July 20, 1819.
  • Pallas, Peter Simon. Travels Through the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, Performed in the Years 1793 and 1794. Vol. I. London: John Stockdale, 1812.
  • Peyssonnel, Claude-Charles de. Traité Sur Le Commerce De La Mer Noire. Tome Premier. Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787.
  • Pokrovsky, Mikhail V. Iz Istorii Adygov v Kontse XVIII – Pervoi Polovine XIX Veka [From the History of the Circassians: From the End of 18th Century though to the First Half of the 19th Century]. Krasnodar, Russia: Krasnodarskoe knizhnoe izdanie, 1989.
  • Price, Jacob M. “The Tobacco Adventure to Russia: Enterprise, Politics, and Diplomacy in the Quest for a Northern Market for English Colonial Tobacco, 1676-1722.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 51:1 (1961): 1-120.
  • Richmond, Walter. The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press, 2013.
  • Salem Gazette, August 3, 1813.
  • Salem, Lori Anne. “Race, Sexuality and Arabs in American Entertainment.” Sherifa Zuhur ed., Colors of Enchantment: Theater, Dance, Music, and the Visual Arts in the Middle East. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2002.
  • Shamrai, V.S. “A Short Survey of Exchange (Trade) Relations Along Black Sea Border and Sea-Shore Lines, with Trans-Kuban Mountaineer People: From 1892 through 1864” [Kratky Ocherk Menovykh (Torgovykh) Snoshenii Po Chernomorskoy Kordonnoi and Beregovoi Linii s Zakubanskimi Gorskimi Narodami. S 1892 Po 1864 God]. In S.V. Rudenko, ed. Kubansky Sbornik, V. 8, Ekaterinodar: Tipografiia I.F.Boiko, 1902. 352-522.
  • Shapovalov, A.V. “Tabak v Zapadnoi Sibiri v XVII-XVIII vv” [Tobacco in Western Siberia in 17-18 centuries]. A.E. Demidchik, A.V.Kharlamov, K.I.Dremova, and A.V.Shapovalov eds., Chuzhdoe – Chizhoe – Nashe. Nabludeniia K Probleme Vzaimodeistviia Kul’tur [Alien – Strange – Ours: Observations About the Issue of Interactions Between Cultures]. Novosibirsk, Russia: Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University, 2000. Shscherbina, Fyodor A. Istoriia Kubanskogo Kazachego Voiska [A History of the Kuban Cossack Army]. V.1. Ekaterinodar, Russia: Tipografiia kebanskogo oblastnogo pravleniia, 1910.
  • Spektor, M. “Torgovy Tsentr Zabaikalia: Iz Proshlogo Verkhneudinska” [Trade Center in Zabaikalie]. Zarya Kommunizma, Ulan-Ude, July 24, 1966.
  • Stephenson, Carl, and Frederick George Marcham (eds). A Selection of Documents from A.D. 600 to the Present. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1937.
  • Tavernier, Jean Baptiste. Les six voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier, Ecuyer baron D'Aubonne, Qu'il a Fait en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes, Pendant L'efpace de Quarante ans. 2 partie. Paris: Chez Gervais Clouzier, Claude Barbin, 1676-1677 - Cited from Russian translation: Gardanov V.K, ed. Adygi, Balkartsy I Karachaevtsy V Izvestiiakh Evropeiskikh Avtorov XII-XIX vv. [Circassians, Balkars, and Karachais in the Materials of European Authors]. Nalchik, Russia: Elbrus, 1974.
  • “Tobacco Trade in Russia, 1705.” William and Marry College Quarterly, 3:4 (October 1923): 250-258.
  • Tornau, Fyodor F. Vospominaniia Kavkazskogo Ofitsera, 1835, 36, 37 I 38 Goda [Memoirs of a Caucasus Officer: Years 1835 through 1838]. Part 2. Moscow: Katkov and Co, 1864.
  • Trakho, Ramazan. Circassians [Cherkesy]. Nalchik: El-Fa, 1992.
  • Trusevich, Khristofor I. Posol’skie I Torgovye Snosheniya Rossii s Kitaem (do 19 veka) [Diplomatic and Trade Interactions between Russia and China (till the 19th Century)]. Moscow: Tipographiya G. Malinskogo. 1882.
  • Unkovsky, Semyon Y. Zapiski Moriaka: 1803-1819 [Sailor’s Notes]. Moscow: Izdatel’stvo imeni Sabashnikovykh, 2004.
  • Vasmer, Max. Etimologichesky Slovar’ Russkogo Yazyka [Etymologic Dictionary of Russian Language]. Translated from German into Russian by O.N.Trubachova. V. 4, Moscow: Astrel, 2004.
  • Vereshschagin, A.V. Land and Navy Communications’ Influence on Colonization and Development of the Caucasus’ Black Sea Shore [Vliyanie Sukhoputnykh I Morskikh Soobshschenii Na Kolonizatsiyu I Razvitie Chernomorskogo Poberezhya Kavkaza]. S.-Petersburg: Obshschestvennaya Polza, 1885.
  • “Virginia Tobacco in Russia.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 4 (July 1896): 55-63.
  • Windt, Harry de. From Paris to New York by Land. London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1903.
  • Zhentel, Nurbi Kh. Bzhedugi V Kontse XVIII – Pervoi Polovine XIX v.: Sotsial’no-Ekonomichskie Otnosheniia I Politicheskoe Razvitie [Bzhedugs From the End of the 18th Century through to the First Half of the 19th Century: Socio-Economic Relations and Political Development]. Maikop, Russia: Adygei republican institute for Social research, 2007. (PhD thesis).
  • Zhemukhov, Sufian. Zhisn Shory Nogma. [Shora Nogma: A Life] Nalchik, Elbrus, 2002.
  • Zhemukhov, Sufian N. “’Circassian’ ships in Atlantic Ocean.” Natpress, November 15, 2011, http://natpress.net/index.php?newsid=7825
  • Zhemukhov, Sufian N. “Circassians in American Newspapers.” Journal of Caucasian Studies 2:4, (2017): 188-215.
Toplam 81 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Sufian Zhemukhov

Yayımlanma Tarihi 21 Haziran 2018
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2018

Kaynak Göster

MLA Zhemukhov, Sufian. “The Story of Circassian Tobacco”. Kafkasya Çalışmaları, c. 3, sy. 6, 2018, ss. 253-90, doi:10.21488/jocas.428805.
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