Antrenör Davranışları: Kuramsal Yaklaşımlar, Antrenörün Sporcuya Etkisi ve Öneriler

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 1 Sayı: 1, 41 - 54, 31.12.2021

Tuğçenur Kalkan İhsan Sarı

Öz

Sporcuyu etkileyen birçok unsur olmakla birlikte bunların en önemlilerinden biri antrenörlerdir. Antrenör, sergilediği davranışlar ile sporcuyu bir çok yönden etkilemektedir. Bu makale antrenör davranışları ile ilgili kuramsal yaklaşımları ve antrenör davranışlarının sporcuya etkilerini değerlendirerek antrenörlere bazı öneriler sunmak amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda ilk olarak antrenör davranışlarına yönelik bazı kuramsal yaklaşımlar özetlenmiştir. Sonrasında ise antrenör davranışlarının sporcunun performansı, motivasyonu, tükenmişliği, ahlaki davranışları ile takım birlikteliğine etkisi ele alınmıştır. Alanyazındaki araştırmalar ışığında antrenör davranışlarının sporcuları bir çok açıdan etkilediği söylenebilir. Antrenörler, sergiledikleri davranışlar ile sporcuların performansı, motivasyonu, tülenmişliği, ahlaki davranışları ve takım birlikteliğini etkilemektedir. Bu araştırma kapsamında ele alınan çalışmalar doğrultusunda antrenörler için çeşitli öneriler sunulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

antrenör, davranış, liderlik, motivasyon

Coaching Behaviors: Theoretical Approaches, Coaches’ Effect on Athletes and Recommendations

Öz

Although there are many factors that affect the athlete, one of the most important of these factors is sport coach. The coach affects the athlete in many ways with the behaviors they exhibits. This article has been prepared in order to offer some suggestions to sport coaches by evaluating the theoretical approaches about coaching behaviours and reviewing the effects of coaching behaviours on athletes. Accordingly, some theoretical approaches to coaching behaviours are summarized. Afterwards, the effects of coaching behaviors on athletes’ performance, motivation, burnout, moral behaviors and team cohesion were discussed. It could be said in the light of the relevant studies that coaching behaviors affect athletes in many ways. Coaches, by the behaviours they exhibit, affect athletes’ performance, motivation, burnout, moral behavior and team cohesion. Finally, in line with the explanations made, some suggestions for sports coaches were proposed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

coach, behavior, leadership, motivation

Kaynakça

• Ahmad, H. (2014). The coach-athlete relationship in the Middle East: Cultural considerations.
• Amman, M. T., İkizler, H. C. & Karagözoğlu, C. (2000). Spora Motive Etmede Sosyal Faktörlerin Etkisi. Sporda Sosyal Bilimler. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınevi.
• Amorose A. J. & Anderson-Butcher D. (2015). Exploring the independent and interactive effects of autonomy-supportive and controlling coaching behaviors on adolescent athletes’ motivation for sport . Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 4(3), 206.
• Amorose, A. J. & Anderson-Butcher, D. (2007). Autonomy-supportive coaching and self-determined motivation in high school and college athletes: A test of self-determination theory. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(5), 654-670.
• Amorose, A. J. & Horn, T. S. (2000). Intrinsic motivation: relationships with collegiate athletes’ gender, scholarship status and perceptions of their coaches’ behaviour. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22, 63-84.
• Amorose, A. J., Anderson-Butcher, D., Newman, T. J., Fraina, M. & Iachini, A. (2016). High school athletes’ self-determined motivation: The independent and interactive effects of coach, father, and mother autonomy support. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 26, 1-8.
• Arslan, F., Ziyagil, M. A. & Bastik, C. (2018). Examination of moral decision-making attitudes of elite male basketball players and wrestlersaccording to variables of sport experience and mother, father education. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(3), 378-385.
• Aytunga, Oğuz, Altınkurt, Y., Yılmaz, K. & Hatipoğlu, S. (2014). Öğretmenlerin eğitim inançları ile öğrenen özerkliğini destekleme davranışları arasındaki ilişki. Turkish Journal of Educational Studies, 1(1).
• Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N. & Thagersen-Ntoumani, C. (2009). A review of controlling motivational strategies from a self-determination theory perspective: Implications for sports coaches. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2(2), 215-233.
• Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N. & Thagersen-Ntoumani, C. (2010). The controlling interpersonal style in a coaching context: Development and initial validation of a psychometric scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32(2), 193-216.
• Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J. A. & Thagersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Self-determination theory and diminished functioning: The role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1459-1473.
• Barut, A. İ. (2018). Farklı hedef yönelimlerine sahip unilig erkek basketbolcularının algılanan liderlik davranışı ve antrenör davranışlarını değerlendirmelerinin karşılaştırılması. Mersin Üniversitesi, Eğitm Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Anabilim Dalı, Mersin.
• Bekiari, A. & Syrmpas, I. (2015). Coaches' verbal aggressiveness and motivational climate as predictors of athletes’ satisfaction. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 318-329. Bentley, J. (2003). İnsanları Motive Etme (Çev. O. Yıldırım). İstanbul: Hayat Yayınevi.
• Black, S. J. & Weiss, M. R. (1992). The relationship among perceived coaching behaviors, perceptions of ability, and motivation in competitive age-group swimmers. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(3), 309- 325.
• Cairney, J., Clark, H. J., Kwan, M. Y., Bruner, M. & Tamminen, K. (2018). Measuring sport experiences in children and youth to better understand the impact of sport on health and positive youth development: Designing a brief measure for population health surveys. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1-9.
• Çalışkan, G. (2001). Liderlik açısından antrenör davranışlarının sporcu performansı üzerine etkisinin değerlendirilmesi. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kütahya.
• Canlı, U., Taşkın, C. & Kurt, C. (2021). Çoklu beceri hareket eğitimi programı: okul öncesi çocuklarda vücut kompozisyonu ve motor performans değişimleri. Uluslararası Bozok Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(1), 156-167.
• Carlson, C. (2011). The “playing” field: Attitudes, activities, and the conflation of play and games. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 38(1), 74-87.
• Çelik, V. O. (2015). Spor alanında karizmatik liderlerin grup bütünlüğü üzerindeki etkileri. The Journal of Academic Social Science, 14(3), 104-122.
• Chan, D. K. C., Dimmock, J. A., Donovan, R. J., Hardcastle, Sarah, Lentillon-Kaestner, V. & Hagger, M. S. (2015). Self-determined motivation in sport predicts anti-doping motivation and intention: A Perspective From The Trans-Contextual Model. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(3), 315-322.
• Chelladurai, P. (1984). Discrepancy between preferences and perceptions of leadership behavior and satisfaction of athletes in varying sports. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 27-41.
• Chelladurai, P. (1990). Leadership in sports: a review of relevant research. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 21, 328- 354. Chelladurai, P. (1993). Leadership. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphy & L. K. Tennant (Eds.). Handbook Of Research On Sport Psychology (Pp. 647-671).
• Chelladurai, P. (2007). Leadership in sports. Handbook of sport psychology, 3, 113-135.
• Chelladurai, P. & Carron, A. (1978). Leadership. Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation Sociology of Sport Monograph Series A. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary.
• Cheval B, Chalabaev A, Quested E, Courvoisier D.S. & Sarrazin P. (2017). How perceived autonomy support and controlling coach behaviors are related to well-and ill-being in elite soccer players: A within-person changes and between-person differences analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 28, 68-77.
• Coutu, D., Kauffman, C., Charan, R., Peterson, D. B., Maccoby, M. & Scoular, P. A. (2009). What can coaches do for you. Harvard Business Review, 87(1), 91-97
• Cranmer, G. A. & Myers, S. A. (2015). Sports teams as organizations: A leader–member exchange perspective of player communication with coaches and teammates. Communication & Sport, 3(1), 100-118
• Cross, J.L. & Lyle, J. (1999). The coaching process: principles and practice for sport. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Coaching Philosophy and Coaching Behavior (s.25-46).
• Cruickhank, A., ve Collins, D. (2015). The sport coach. in i. o’boyle, d. murrey ve p. cummins, leadership in sport, abingdon, oxon: routledge, 155-172.
• Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2008). “Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Canadian psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(1), 14.
• Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M., (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self determination in human behavior, Newyork Plenum
• Defreese, J. D. & Smith, A. L. (2014). Athlete social support, negative social interactions, and psychological health across a competitive sport season. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36(6), 619-630.
• Durak, N. (2011). Gelenek ve modernite etkileşimi bağlamında spor etiği. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(27), 43-63.
• Durdubaş, D. (2013). Bir sezon boyunca takım hedef belirleme yoluyla uygulanan takım oluşturma müdahalesinin takım sargınlığı ve motivasyonel iklim üzerine etkisinin belirlenme. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Erdem, K. (2005). Futbolda Kenar Yönetimi, Morpa Yayın Evi, S. 10, İstanbul.
• Erkal, E. M., Güven, Ö. & Ayan, D. (1986). Sosyolojik açıdan spor. MEG Ve SB Beden Terbiyesi Ve Spor Genel Müdürlüğü Milli Eğitim Basımevi, 57.
• Felton L, Jowett S. (2013). “What do coaches do” and “how do they relate”: their effects on athletes' psychological needs and functioning. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(2), 130-139.
• Fenton SA, Duda JL, Quested E. & Barrett T. (2014). Coach autonomy support predicts autonomous motivation and daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary time in youth sport participants. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(5), 453-463
• Festinger, L., Back, K., Schachter, S., Kelley, H. H. & Thibaut, J. (1950). Theory and experiment in social communication. Ann Arbor: Research Center for Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.
• Gaudreau, P., Morinville, A., Gareau, A., Verner-Filion, J., Green-Demers, I. & Franche, V. (2016). Autonomy support from parents and coaches: Synergistic or compensatory effects on sport-related outcomes of adolescent athletes? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 25, 89-99.
• Gould, D., Guinan, D., Greenleaf, C., Medbery, R. & Peterson, K. (1999). Factors affecting olympic performance: perceptions of athletes and coaches from more and less successful teams. The Sport Psychologist, 13(4), 371-394.
• Gülcan N. Y. (2015). Discussing the importance of teaching ethics in education. Social and Behavioral Science, 174, 2622-2625.
• Gustafsson H, Martinent G, Isoard-Gautheur S, Hassmén P. & Guillet-Descas E. (2018). Performance based self-esteem and athlete-identity in athlete burnout: A person-centered approach. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 38, pp. 56-60.
• Güvendi, B. & Keskin, B. (2020). Sporcuların antrenörlerinden algıladıkları etik dışı davranış algısına göre saldırganlık ve öfke davranışlarının incelenmesi. Gaziantep Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 5(2), 134-145.
• Güvendi, B. & Türksoy Işım, A. (2019). Moral disengagement level of team athletes depending on unethical behaviors they perceived from their coaches. Journal of Educationand Learning, 8(4), 83-92.
• Holec, H. (1991). Autonomie de l’apprenant: de l’enseignement a l’apprentissage. Education Permanente, 107, 1-5.
• Icce & Asoıf (2012). International sport coaching framework (Version 1.1), Human Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois, United States.Isoard-Gautheur S, Guillet-Descas E, Lemyre PN. (2012). A prospective study of the influence of perceived coaching style on burnout propensity in high level young athletes: Using a self-determination theory perspective. The Sport Psychologist, 26(2), 282-298.
• Jowett S. & Cockerill I. (2002). Incompatibility in the coach–athlete relationship. In: cockerill ı, ed. Solutions in Sport Psychology. London: Thompson Learning.
• Jowett, S. (2005). The coach–athlete partnership. The Psychologist, 18(7), 412-415.
• Jowett, S. (2012) . The coach-athlete relationship. The Sport and Exercise Scientist.
• Jowett, S. Ntoumanis (2004). The coach–athlete relationship questionnaire: development and initial validation. Scandavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports.24:245-257.
• Jowett, S. Ve Cockerill, M. (2003). Olympic medallists’ perspective of the athlete–coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, 313–331.
• Jowett, S., & Meek, G. A. (2000). The coach-athlete relationship in married couples: An exploratory content analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 14(2), 157-175.
• Karakoç, Ö., Yüksek, S., Aydın, A. D., Karakoç, B., Yetiş, Ü. & Baydil, B. (2011). Milli takım düzeyindeki erkek judocuların kulüp antrenörlerinde gözlemledikleri etik dışı davranışlar. Kastmonu Eğitim Dergisi, 19(1), 321-332.
• Kipp, L. E. & Weiss, M. R. (2013). Social influences, psychological need satisfaction, and well-being among female adolescent gymnasts. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2(1), 62.
• Kırkbir, F., Zengin, S., & Aydemir, B. (2021). Elit seviyedeki tekwondo sporcularına göre antrenör davranışlarının incelenmesi. Spor Eğitim Dergisi, 5(2), 66-73.
• Koç, Ş. (1994). Spor psikolojisine giriş. Saray Medikal Yayıncılık.Konter, E. (2006). Spor Psikolojisi El Kitabı. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Kosiewicz, J. (2014). Sport beyond moral good and evil. Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 62(1), 22-30.
• Li C, Zhu Y, Zhang M, Gustafsson H. & Chen T. (2019). Mindfulness and Athlete Burnout: A Systematic Review and MetaAnalysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3), 449.
• Lumpkin, A., Stoll, K. S., Beller. & M. J. (2003). Sport ethics: application for fair play (3rd Ed.). USA: Mcgrawhill.
• Lyle J. (2002). Sports Coaching Concepts: A Framework for Coaches’ Behavior , Routledge, London,.
• Lyle, J. & Cushion, C. (2016). Sport coaching concepts: A framework for coaching practice. New York: Routledge.
• Moralı, S. (1994). Takım sporlarında, takım birlikteliğinin ve dayanışmasının ölçülmesi. Ege Üniversitesi Doktora Tezi, 13.
• Newman, M. (2009). Emotional capitalists: The new leaders. John Wiley & Sons.
• Ommundsen, Y., Roberts, G. C., Lemyre, P. N. & Treasure, D. (2003). Perceived motivational climate in male youth soccer: relations to social-moral functioning, sportspersonship and team norm perceptions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(4), 397-413.
• Palou, P., Ponseti, F. J., Cruz, J., Vidal, J., Cantallops, J., Borràs, P. A. & Garcia-Mas, A. (2013). Acceptance of gamesmanship and cheating in young competitive athletes in relation to the motivational climate generated by parents and coaches. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 117(1), 290-303.
• Peláez, S., Aulls, M.W., Rossi, A. & Bacon, S.L. (2013). The coach as a contributor to the socio-moral context: a literature review. Psychology Research, 3(3), 113-128.
• Quested E, Duda JL. (2011). Perceived autonomy support, motivation regulations and the self-evaluative tendencies of student dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 15(1), 3-14.
• Raedeke TD, Lunney K. & Venables K. (2002). Understanding athlete burnout: Coach perspectives. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(2), 181-206
• Raedeke, T. D. & Smith, A. L. (2009). The athlete burnout questionnaire manual (Vol. 4). Fitness Information Technology.
• Reddiford, G. (1998). Cheating and self-deception in sport. In M. J. Mcnamee, & S. J. Parry (Eds.), Ethics And Sport (Pp. 225–239). E And F.N. Spon.
• Riemer, H. A. & Chelladurai, P. (1998). Development of the athlete satisfaction questionnaire (ASQ). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20(2), 127-156.
• Rutten, E. A., Stams, G. J. J., Biesta, G. J., Schuengel, C., Dirks, E. & Hoeksma, J. B. (2007). The contribution of organized youth sport to antisocial and prosocial behavior in adolescent athletes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(3), 255-264.
• Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of ıntrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55 (1), 68-78.
• Sabido, F., Milazzo, V. J., Hobson, R. W. & Duran, W. N. (1994). Skeletal muscle ischemia-reperfusion injury: a review of endothelial cell-leukocyte interactions. Journal of Investigative Surgery, 7(1), 39-47.
• Sarı, İ. (2019). Antrenörden algılanan özerklik desteği ve sporcuların özerk güdülenmesi arasındaki ilişki: bir meta-analiz çalışması. Spormetre The Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences. 17(2), 110-125.
• Sarı, İ. & Bulut, Y. (2020). Antrenörlük mesleğine yönelik tutum ölçeği: üniversite öğrencileri için geçerlilik ve güvenirlilik çalışması. Turkiye Klinikleri Spor Bilimleri, 12(1).
• Sarı, İ. & Köleli, N. Y. (2020). Antrenör kaynaklı destekleyici ve kısıtlayıcı güdüsel iklimin sporcuların tükenmişlik ve ahlaki karar alma tutumları ile ilişkisi. Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 31(2), 69-82.
• Scharle, A. & Szabo, A. (2000). Learner autonomy a guide to developing learner responsibility. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press.
• Spiller, H.J. (1975). Die ergenschaffen des spitzentrainers und seine ausbildungleistungssport. Frankfurt: Germany.
• Stirling, A. E. & Kerr, G. A. (2009). Abused athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. Sport in Society, 12(2), 227-239.
• Stornes, T. (2001). Sportspersonship in elite sports: on the effects of personal and environmental factors on the display of sportspersonship among elite male handball players. European Physical Education Review, 7(3), 283-304.
• Sunay, H. (1997). Gençlik ve Spor Genel Müdürlüğü'nün uyguladığı antrenör eğitimi programlarının değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(4), 44-60.
• Sunay, H. (2013). Coaching practises of first and second leauge women-men volleyball coaches in Turkey. Life Sciences Journal. 10(7):556-561.
• Taylor, B. (2006). Coaching. In Ferrero, F. (Ed.). British canoe union, coaching handbook. Wales: Pesda Press.
• The United Kingdom Coaching Strategy Association (2002, April).Sport Coach, Coaching. Retrieved April 26, 2002, web: http,//www.brainmac.demon.co.uk/coaching.htm
• Thompson, J. (1995). Positive coaching: Building character and self-esteem through sports. Balance Sports Pub.
• Treassure, D. & Roberts, G.C. (1998). Relationship between female adolescents achievement goal orientations, perceptions of motivationale climate, belief about succes and sources of satisfaction in basketball. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29(3), 211-230.
• Vallerand, R. J. & Losier, G. F. (1999). An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11(1), 142-169.
• Vealey, R. S., Armstrong, L., Comar, W. & Greenleaf, C. A. (1998). Influence of perceived coaching behaviors on burnout and competitive anxiety in female college athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10(2), 297-318.
• Wang, P. (2011). Constructivism and learner autonomy in foreign language teaching and learning: to what extent does theory inform practice? Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(3), 273-277.
• Weiss, M. R. & Friedrichs, W. D. (1986). The influence of leader behaviors, coach attributes, and institutional variables on performance and satisfaction of collegiate basketball teams. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8(4), 332-346.
• West, L. (2016). Coach-athlete communication: Coaching style, leadership characteristics, and psychological outcomes.