Transformation of the Somali Civil-War and Reflections for a Post -Conflict Social Contract

Öz

2019 marks 28 years since the central government in Somalia collapsed, however, even today, subsequent generations of those who experienced the collapse continue to suffer its consequences. Relative to its prolonged manifestation, the crisis in Somalia remains a difficult one to forget given the continued internal suffering and external threat that it poses. Purposefully, this article will attempt to contribute to the existing peace efforts by adding the role of community/clan social contract in the peace process. The previous peace efforts prioritized state -building and establishing a central government without examining the attitude of people towards a central authority given their experiences and how the clans relate to each other. We argue that the complexity of the conflict in Somalia is due to the transformation of the conflict from a civil war to a chaotic mixture of clan-based violence, terrorism, and piracy. To solve this problem, we recommend a two-level social contract approach that will be people driven and address some of the major grievances of key actors through a constitutional process.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Somalia,Social Contract,Conflict Resolution,State-Building

Somali İç Savaşının Dönüşümü Ve Sosyal Sözleşme Barış İnşası Sürecine Yansımaları

Öz

Somali'de yaşanan çatışma, en son aşamasında kanlı bir iç savaşın  terörle mücadeleye dönüşmeye başlamasından bu yana otuz yıla yaklaşmaktadır. 1991'de ortaya çıkan çatışmanın yıkıcı etkilerini üç kuşak deneyimlemeye devam etmektedir. Sayısız barışı sağlama çabasına rağmen, uzun süren çatışmanın üstesinden gelmede çok az başarı sağlandığı görülmektedir. Mevcut literatür, çatışmanın ana nedeni olarak kabile kimliğinin ve zayıf yönetişimin rolünü vurgulamaktadır, ancak sürdürülebilir barış inşası çabalarını sağlamada yetersiz kalmaktadır.  Bu makale, Somali'nin vatandaşlarını bir millet olarak birbirine bağlayan ve hükümetle ilişkilerini güçlendiren bağlarını çoktan yitirdiğini göstermektedir. Böylelikle makale, insanlar arasında ve insanlar ile hükümet arasındaki sosyal sözleşmeyi canlandırmak için daha detaylı çaba sarf edilmesini önermektedir. Yeni bir anayasal muafiyete dayalı olarak önerilen iki aşamalı sosyal sözleşme, yalnızca insanlara yönelik değil; aynı zamanda kilit aktörlerin kökleşmiş şikayetlerinin bir kısmını da anayasal bir süreç aracılığıyla ele almalıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Somali,Sosyal Sözleşme,Uyuşmazlık Çözümü,Devlet İnşası

Kaynakça

1. Adam, H. M. (2008). From tyranny to anarchy: The Somali experience. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press.
2. Bakonyi, J. & Stuvøy, K. (2005). Violence & social order beyond the state: Somalia & Angola. Review of African political economy, 32(104-105), 359-382.
3. Baldacci, G. (1909). The Promontory of Cape Guardafui. Journal of the Royal African Society, 9(33), 59-72.
4. Barnes, C. & Hassan, H. (2007). The rise and fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 1(2), 151-160.
5. Beichman, A. (October 16 2008). Troubled Nations. Hobbesian World, Washington Times, 16.
6. Bercovitch, J., Kremenûk, V. A., Zartman, I. W., & SAGE. (2013). The Sage handbook of conflict resolution. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
7. Berman, B. J. (1998). Ethnicity, patronage and the African state: the politics of uncivil nationalism. African Affairs, 97(388), 305-341.
8. Bootaan, A. A. (1996). Somalia: Federal State or Federation of Tribes. Paper presented at the 6th International Congress of Somali Studies, Berlin. December 6–9.

9. Bradbury, M. (1999). The Somali conflict: Prospects for peace. Oxford England: Oxfam.
10. Brons, M. (2001). Society, security, sovereignty, and the state in Somalia: From statelessness to statelessness?. Utrecht: International Books.
11. Brown, M. E. (2001). Ethnic and Internal Conflict: Causes and Implications. In: Crocker, C.A., Hampson, F.O. & Aall, P. (eds). Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press, pp. 209-226.
12. Burton, R. (1970). First footsteps in East Africa: Or, an exploration of Harar. New Haven, Conn: Human Relations Area Files.
13. Button, M. E. (2010). Contract, culture, and citizenship: Transformative liberalism from Hobbes to Rawls. Univ. Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press.
14. Ciisa-Salwe, M. (1996). The collapse of the Somali state: the impact of the colonial legacy. London: Haan.
15. Compagnon, D. (1992). Political decay in Somalia: from personal rule to warlordism. Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees, 12(5), 8-13.
16. Daniels, C. L. (2013). Somali piracy and terrorism in the Horn of Africa. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press.
17. Doornbos, M. (2000). When is a state a state? Exploring Puntland. Trajectoires de libération en Afrique contemporaire. Paris: Karthala, 125-139.
18. Drysdale, J. G. S. (1992). Somaliland 1991: Report and reference. Hove: Global-Stats.
19. Eisenstadt, S. N. (1973). Traditional patrimonialism and modern neopatrimonialism. Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage.
20. Ekeh, P. P. (1975). Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A theoretical statement. Comparative studies in society and history, 17(1), 91-112.
21. Elmi, A. A. and Barise, A. (2006). The Somali Conflict: Root causes, obstacles, and peace-building strategies. African Security Studies, 15(1), 32-54.
22. Etzioni, A. (1965). Modern organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
23. Fahy, K. (1999). Post-governance Somalia beyond 2000: Prospects for a Nation without a State?. Trocaire Development Review, 7(2), 81-104.
24. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of peace research, 27(3), 291-305.
25. Gellner, E. (1983). Nations, and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Glencoe.
26. Hansen, S. J. (2016). Al-Shabaab in Somalia: The history and ideology of a militant islamist group. New York: Oxford University Press.
27. Hashim, A. B. (1997). The fallen state: Dissonance, dictatorship, and death in Somalia. Lanham (Md.: University Press of America.
28. Healy, S., & Bradbury, M. (2010). Endless war: A brief history of the Somali conflict. Conciliation Resources, 21(1), 10-14.
29. Ho, K. (2007). Structural violence as a human rights violation. Essex Human Rights Review, 4(2), 1-17.
30. Hobbes, T. (2016). Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan (Longman Library of Primary Sources in Philosophy). Abingdon: Routledge.
31. Höhne, M. V. (2015). Between Somaliland and Puntland: Marginalization, militarization and conflicting political visions. London: Rift Valley Institute.
32. Ingiriis, M. H. (2016). The suicidal state in Somalia: The rise and fall of the Siad Barre regime, 1969–1991. Lanham : University Press of America.
33. Ingiriis, M.H. (2018a). From Al-Itihaad to Al-Shabaab: how the Ethiopian intervention and the ‘War on Terror’ exacerbated the conflict in Somalia. Third World Quarterly, 39(11), 2033-2052.
34. Ingiriis, M.H., (2018b). From Pre-Colonial Past to the Post-Colonial Present: The Contemporary Clan-Based Configurations of State building in Somalia. African Studies Review, 61(2), 55-77.
35. Kamara, A. R. (2016). Post-war reconstruction in failed states: The case of Sierra Leone. Ontario: Flowers Publications.
36. Laitin, D. D. & Samatar, S. S. (1987). Somalia: Nation in search of a state. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press.
37. Leonard, D. K., Mushi, F. M., Samantar, M., & Vincent, J. (Novemver, 2011). Social Contracts and Security in Sub-Saharan African Conflict States: The Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, and Somalia. Paper for presentation to the African Studies Association, Washington, D.C. Accessed on 12 May 2019 from: https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/133992/Contracts%20and%20Conflicts%20-%20ASA.pdf
38. Leonard, David K. and Mohamed S. S. (2011). What does the Somali experience teach us about the social contract and the state? Development and Change, 42(2), 559-584.
39. Lewis, I. M. (2005). A modern history of the Somali: Nation and state in the Horn of Africa. Oxford: James Currey.
40. Lewis, I. M. (2008). Understanding Somalia and Somaliland – Culture, history, society. London: Hurst Publishers Ltd.
41. Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. Oxford: James Currey Publishers.
42. Lewis, I. M. (2002). Ecstatic religion: a study of shamanism and spirit possession. Abingdon on-Thames: Routledge.
43. Little, P. D. (2003). Somalia: Economy without the state. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
44. Lyons, T. & Samatar, A. I. (2010). Somalia: State collapse, multilateral intervention, and strategies for political reconstruction. Massachusetts: Brookings Institution Press.
45. Magan, A. I. (2016). Somalia: instability, conflict, and federalism. Master's thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås.
46. Makinda, S. M. (1993). Seeking peace from chaos: humanitarian intervention in Somalia. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.
47. Mamdani, M. (2018). Citizen and subject: Contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonialism. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
48. Médard, J.-F. (1996). Patrimonalism, neo-patrimonialism and the study of the postcolonial state in Sub-Saharian Africa. In H.S. Marcussen (ed.), Improved Natural Resource Management, the Role of Formal Organisations and Informal Networks and Institutions, Roskilde: Roskilde University, 76-97.
49. Menkhaus, K. (2003). State collapse in Somalia: second thoughts. Review of African Political Economy, 30(97), 405-422.
50. Menkhaus, K. (2007). Governance without government in Somalia: spoilers, state-building, and the politics of coping. International Security, 31(3), 74-106.
51. Mohamoud, M. A. (2015). Federalism for Somalia: Internal and External Challenges in the Post-Transitional Period. Paper presented at the High-quality Research Support programme (HQRS). Available from: http://ocvp.org/docs/Cahort1/14.pdf
52. Møller, B. (2009). The Somali conflict: The role of external actors (No. 2009: 03). DIIS Reports/Danish Institute for International Studies.
53. Muravchik, J. (2005). The future of the United Nations: Understanding the past to chart a way forward. Washington, DC: AEI Press. ISBN 084466163X.
54. Nyadera, I. N. & Bincof, M. O. (2019). Human security, terrorism, and counterterrorism: Boko Haram and the Taliban. International Journal on World Peace, 36(1), 4-15.
55. Oliver, R., & Fage, J. D. (1972). A short history of Africa (No. 960 O5 1972). 40. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
56. Prunier, G. (2006). From genocide to continental war: The'Congolese'conflict and the crisis of contemporary Africa. London: Hurst & Co.
57. Rutherford, K. (2008). Humanitarianism Under Fire. Sterling: Kumarian Press.
58. Rýdlová, B. (2007). Civil war in Somalia: A colonial legacy. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Univerzita Karlova.
59. Samatar, A. and Samatar, A. I. (1987). The material roots of the suspended African state: Arguments from Somalia. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 25(4), 669-690.
60. Samatar, A. I. (2002). Somalis: Africa's first democrats. Bildaan: International Journal of Somali Studies, 2, 1-65.
61. Sorens, J. P. and Wantchekon, L. (2000). Social Order without the State: The Case of Somalia. Yale Center for International and Area Studies, Council on African Studies. Accessible from: https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/47024/AS02.pdf
62. Sousa, R. R. P. D. (2014). External interventions and civil war intensity in south-central Somalia (1991-2010). Cadernos de Estudos Africanos, 28(2), 57-86.
63. Teutsch, F. (1999). Collapsing expectation: national identity and disintegration of the state of Somalia (No. 78). Centre of African Studies, Edinburgh University.
64. Touval, S. and Zartman, I.W. eds. (1985). International mediation in theory and practice. Westview Press with the Foreign Policy Institute, School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University.
65. Turner, T. E. (1985). Zaire: Stalemate and Compromise. Current History, 84(501), 179-183.
66. Weber, M (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. New York: The Free Press.
67. Winter, J. (2004). "Living in Somalia's Anarchy." BBC News 18. Accessible from: https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/173/30472.html
68. Zartman, I. W. and Berman, M. R. (1982). The practical negotiator. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
69. Zartman, I. W. (1983). The political economy of Nigeria. New York: Praeger Publishers.
70. Zartman, I. W. (2000). Ripeness: The hurting stalemate and beyond. International Conflict Resolution After the Cold War, 2, 225-250.