The Effect of Dark Chocolate on Oxidative Stress Parameters After High-Intensity Kickboxing Training

Abstract

In our study, the impact of dark chocolate on oxidant and antioxidant parameters was examined. Dark chocolate intake has increased as a result of its beneficial benefits on human health. Twenty male kickboxers in the study. On the first day blood samples were collected. Then, two groups of 10 people were randomly divided into two groups. Only one of the groups received chocolate. At 18:00 at night, blood samples were collected and stored at -80 °C. To determine oxidant stress; malondialdehyde (MDA), to determine antioxidant capacity; Superoxide dismutase activity (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) values were measured. After it was determined that the data showed normal distribution, the paired t test was performed. According to the Groups (Control Grup or Chocolate Receiving Group) the changes before and after the training were examined. When examined, it is seen that there is no significant difference in the GPx, MDA and TAC values of the oxidant and antioxidant parameters of the athletes in both groups before and after training. However, a statistically significant change was found in the SOD value of the athletes in the chocolate receiving group before training (p<0.05). In control Group, a statistically significant change was observed between "before and after training" in terms of "GPx and TAC" parameters (p<0.05). Our results showed that dark chocolate consumed acutely before intense exercise is important in terms of showing that it can prevent the increase of oxidative stress markers.

Keywords

• Exercise
• Dark chocolate
• Oxidative stress
• Antioxidant defense
• Kick boxing

Yüksek Yoğunluklu Kickboks Antrenmanı Sonrası Bitter Çikolatanın Oksidatif Stres Parametrelerine Etkisi

Öz

Çalışmamızda, insan sağlığı üzerindeki olumlu etkileri nedeniyle tüketimi artan bitter çikolatanın oksidan ve antioksidan parametreler üzerindeki etkisi araştırılmıştır. Çalışmaya, milli takım kampına katılan 20 erkek kick boks sporcusu dahil edilmiştir. Kampın ilk günü tüm sporcuların boy ve kilo ölçümleri ile 10 cc venöz kan örnekleri alındı. Ölçümler alındıktan sonra sporcular, çikolata alan grup (ÇK) ve çikolata almayan kontrol grubu (KG) olmak üzere rastgele 10 kişilik 2 gruba ayrıldı. ÇK grubuna antrenman öncesi sabah saat 09:00’da %80 kakao içeren 40 gram siyah çikolata (SÇ) yedirildi. Tüm sporcular sabah ve öğleden sonra her biri 1 saat süren yüksek yoğunlukta kick boks antrenmanı yaptı. Akşam saat 18:00’de tekrar 10 cc kan örnekleri alınarak santrifüj edildi ve serumları ayrıştırılarak -80 °C’de saklandı. Oksidan stressi belirlemek için; malondialdehit (MDA), antioksidan kapasiteyi belirlemek için; superoksitdismutaz (SOD) aktivitesi, glutatyon peroksidaz (GSPH) ve total antioxidant kapasite (TAK) değerleri spektrofotometrik yöntem ile ölçüldü. Verilerin normal dağılım gösterdiği belirlendikten sonra eşleştirilmiş t testi yapıldı. Gruplara göre (Kontrol Grubu veya Çikolata Alan Grup) eğitim öncesi, sonrası değişimler incelenmiştir. İncelendiğinde her iki gruptaki sporcuların oksidan ve antioksidan parametrelerinin GPx, MDA ve TAC değerlerinde antrenman öncesi ve sonrası anlamlı fark olmadığı görülmektedir. Ancak çikolata alan gruptaki sporcuların antrenman öncesi SOD değerlerinde istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir değişiklik bulundu (p<0,05). Oksidan ve antioksidan belirteçlerdeki değişimler "antrenman öncesi ve sonrası" gruplarda incelenmiştir. Kontrol Grubunda "GPx ve TAC" parametrelerinde "antrenman öncesi ve sonrası" arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı değişim gözlemlendi (p<0.05). Sonuçlarımız yoğun egzersiz öncesi akut olarak tüketilen bitter çikolatanın oksidatif stres belirteçlerinin yükselmesini engelleyebileceğini göstermiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Egzersiz
• Siyah çikolata
• Oksidatif stres
• Antioksidan savunma
• Kick boks

Kaynakça

1. Alessio, H.M., Goldfarb, A.H., & Cao, G. (1997). Exercise-induced oxidative stress before and after vitamin C supplementation. Int J Sport Nutr, 7(1),1–9. https://doi.org /10.1123/ijsn.7.1.1
2. Allgrove, J.E., Farrell, E., Gleeson, M., Williamson, G., & Cooper, K. (2011). Regular dark chocolate consumption’s reduction of oxidative stress and increase of free-fatty-acid mobilization in response to prolonged cycling. The International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 21 (2),113–123. https://doi.org/ 10.1123/ijsnem.21.2.113
3. Banerjee, A. K., Mandal, A., Chanda, D., Chakraborti, S. (2003). Oxidant, antioxidant and physical exercise. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 253(1/2), 307–312. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026032404105
4. Beneke, R., Beyer, T., Jachner, C., Erasmus, J., Hütler, M. (2004). Energetics of karate kumite. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 92(4/5), 518–23. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00421-004-1073-x
5. Branth, S., Hambraeus, L., Piehl-Aulin, K., Essen-Gustavsson, B., Akerfeldt, T., Olsson, R., Stridsberg, M., & Ronquist, G. (2009). Metabolic stress-like condition can be induced by prolonged strenuous exercise in athletes. Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences, 114 (1),12-25. https://doi.org /10.1080/03009730802579778
6. Chaabène, H., Mkaouer, B., Franchini, E., Souissi, N., Selmi, M.A., & Nagra, Y. (2014). Physiological responses and performance analysis difference between official and simulated karate combat conditions. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 5 (1), 21–9. https://doi.org /10.5812/asjsm.34228
7. Cavarretta, E., Peruzzi, M., Del Vescovo, R., Di Pilla, F., Gobbi, G., Serdoz, A., Ferrara, R., Schirone, L., Sciarretta, S., Nocella, C., De Falco, E., Schiavon, S., Biondi-Zoccai, G., Frati, G., & Carnevale, R. (2018). Dark Chocolate ıntake positively modulates redox status and markers of muscular damage in elite football athletes: A Randomized controlled study. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2018(10), Article 4061901. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4061901
8. Davies, K.J., Quintanilha, A.T., Brooks, G.A., & Packer, L. (1982). Free radicals and tissue damage produced by exercise. Biochem Biophys Res., Commun, 107(4),1198-1205. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-291x(82)80124-1

9. Davis, P., Leithäuser, R. M., & Beneke, R. (2014). The energetics of semicontact 3× 2- min amateur boxing. International journal of sports physiology and performance, 9(2), 233-239. https://doi.org/10.1123/IJSPP.2013-0006
10. Davison, G., Callister, R., Williamson, G., Cooper, K.A., & Gleeson, M. (2012). The effect of acute pre-exercise dark chocolate consumption on plasma antioxidant status, oxidative stress and immunoendocrine responses to prolonged exercise. European Journal of Nutrition, 51,69–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-011-0193-4
11. Davison, G., & Gleeson, M. (2007). The effects of acute vitamin C supplementation on cortisol, interleukin-6, and neutrophil responses to prolonged cycling exercise. European Journal of Sport Science, 7(1),15–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390701197734
12. Davison, G., Gleeson, M., & Phillips, S. (2007). Antioxidant supplementation and immunoendocrine responses to prolonged exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 39 (3),645–652. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318031303d
13. El-Ashker, S., & Nasr, M. (2012). Effect of boxing exercises on physiological and biochemical responses of Egyptian elite boxers. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 12(1),111-116. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2012.01018
14. Fauzi, F., Budin, S.B., Azwan, S., & Yuen, L.K. (2007). The effect of 5-week exercise program on oxidative stress and response to acute exercise among sedentary subjects. Journal Sains Kesihatan Malaysia, 5(2),39-52.
15. Forte, M., Conti, V., & Damato, A. (2016). Targeting nitric oxide with natural derived compounds as a therapeutic strategy in vascular diseases. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2016(20), Article 7364138. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7364138
16. Finaud, J., Lac, G., & Filaire, E. (2006). Oxidative stress: Relationship with exercise and training. Sports Medicine, 36 (4), 327-358. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636040-00004
17. Fisher-Wellman, K., & Bloome R.J. (2009). Acute exercise and oxidative stress: a 30 year history. Dynamic Medicine, 8 (1),1-25. https://doi.org /10.1186/1476-5918-8-1
18. Fraga, C.G., Actis-Goretta, L., Ottaviani, J.I., Carrasquedo, F., Lotito, S.B., Lazarus, S., et al. (2005). Regular consumption of a flavanol-rich chocolate can improve oxidant stress in young soccer players. Clinical & Developmental Immunology,12 (1),11–7. https://doi.org /10.1080/10446670410001722159
19. González-Garrido, J. A., García-Sánchez, J. R., Garrido-Llanos, S., & Olivares-Corichi, I. M. (2017). An association of cocoa consumption with improved physical fitness and decreased muscle damage and oxidative stress in athletes. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 57(4),441–447. https://doi.org /10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06032-1
20. Ighodaro, O.M., & Akinloe, O.A. (2017). First line defence antioxidants-superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX): Their fundamental role in the entire antioxidant defence grid. Alexandria Journal of Medicine, 54 (2018), 287–293.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajme.2017.09.001
21. José, A., & Gonzalez, G. (2017). An association of cocoa consumption with improved physical fitness and decreased muscle damage and oxidative stress in athletes. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 4,441-7. https://doi.org /10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06032-1
22. Lee C.Y., & Man-Fan Wan, J. (2000). Vitamin E supplementation improves cell-mediated immunity and oxidative stress of Asian men and women. Journal of Nutrion, 130(12),2932–2937. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/130.12.2932
23. Loffredo, L., Del Ben, M., & Perri, L. (2016). Effects of dark chocolate on NOX-2-generated oxidative stress in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 44(3), 279–286. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/apt.13687
24. Lu, Y., Wiltshire, H.D., Julien S. Baker, J.S., & Wang, Q. (2021). Effects of high intensity exercise on oxidative stress and antioxidant status in untrained humans: A Systematic review. Biology, 10(12), 2-24. https://doi.org/10.3390 /biology10121272
25. Magrone, T., Russo, M.A., & Jirillo, E. (2017). Cocoa and dark chocolate polyphenols: From biology to clinical applications. Front. Immunol, 8(677), Article 28649251. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00677
26. Marks, R. (2014). Perceived health status of women with knee osteoarthritis: A Cross-sectional study of the relationships of age, body mass, pain and walking limitations. The Open Orthopedics Journal, 3(8), 255-63. https://doi.org/ 10.2174/1874325001408010255
27. Mastaloudis, A., Morrow, J.D., Hopkins, D.W., Devaraj, S., & Traber, M.G. (2004). Antioxidant supplementation prevents exercise - induced lipid peroxidation, but not inflammation, in ultramarathon runners, Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 36(10),1329-1341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.02.069
28. Massaro, M., Scoditti, E., Carluccio, M.A., Kaltsatou, A., & Cicchella, A. (2019). Effect of cocoa products and ıts polyphenolic constituents on exercise performance and exercise-ınduced muscle damage and ınflammation: A Review of clinical trials. Nutrients, 11 (7), Article 31261645. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071471
29. Mcbrier, N.M., Vairo, G.L., Bagshaw, D., Lekan, J.M., Bordi, P.L.& KrisEtherton, P.M. (2010). Cocoa-based protein and carbohydrate drink decreases perceived soreness after exhaustive aerobic exercise: A pragmatic preliminary analysis. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24 (8), 2203-2210. https://doi.org /10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181e4f7f9
30. Moghadam, B.H., Bagheri, R., Ghanavati, M., Khodadadi, F., Cheraghlo, N., Wong, A., Nordvall, M., Suzuki, K., & Shabkhiz, F. (2021). The Combined effects of 6 weeks of jump rope ınterval exercise and dark chocolate consumption on antioxidant markers in obese adolescent Boys. Antioxidants, 10(11), Article 34829546. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/antiox10111675
31. Nieman, D.C., Henson, D.A., McAnulty, S.R., McAnulty, L.S., Morrow, J.D., Ahmed, A., & Heward, C.B. (2004). Vitamin E and immunity after the Kona Triathlon World Championship. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(8), 1328–1335. https://doi.org/ 10.1249/01.mss.0000135778.57355.ca
32. Nieman, D.C., Henson, D.A., McAnulty, S.R., McAnulty, L., Swick, N.S., Utter, A.C., Vinci, D.M., Opiela, S.J., & Morrow, J.D. (2002). Influence of vitamin C supplementation on oxidative and immune changes after an ultramarathon. Journal of Applıed Physiology, 92, 1970 – 1977. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00961.2001
33. Ookawara, T., Haga, S., Ha, S., Oh-Ishi, S., Toshinai, K., & Kizaki, T. (2003). Effects of endurance training on three superoxide dismutase isoenzymes in human plasma. Free Radical Research, 37 (7), 713-9. https://doi.org /10.1080/1071576031000102132
34. Öztasan, N., Taysi, S., Gümüstekin, K., Altınkaynak, K., Aktas, O., & Timur, H. (2004). Endurance training attenuates exercise-induced oxidative stress in erythrocytes in rat. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 91(5–6), 622–7. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00421-003-1029-6
35. Peake, J.M., Neubauer, O., Della Gatta, P.A., & Nosaka, K. (2017). Muscle damage and inflammation during recovery from exercise. Journal of Applıed Physiology, 122, 559–570. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2016
36. Peternelj, T.T., & Coombes, J.S. (2011). Antioxidant supplementation during exercise training beneficial or detrimental. Sports Medicine, 41 (12), 1043–1069. https://doi.org /10.2165/11594400-000000000-00000
37. Powers, S. K., Talbert, E. E., & Adhihetty, P. J. (2011). Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species as intracellular signals in skeletal muscle. The Journal of Physiology, 589 (9), 2129–2138. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2010.20132
38. Pucciarelli, D.L. (2013). Cocoa and heart health: A historical review of the science. Nutrients, 5(10), 3854–3870. https://doi.org /10.3390/nu5103854
39. Radak, Z., Taylor, A.W., Ohno, H., & Goto, S. (2001). Adaptation to exercise-induced oxidative stress: From muscle to brain. Exercise Immunology Review, 7, 90–107
40. Rusconi, M., Conti, A., & Theobroma Cacao, L. (2010). The Food of the Gods: A scientific approach beyond myths and claims. Pharmacological Research, 61(1),5–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2009.08.008
41. Sathyapalan, T., Beckett, S., Rigby, A.S., Mellor, D.D., & Atkin, S.L. (2010). High cocoa polyphenol rich chocolate may reduce the burden of the symptoms in chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Nutrion, 9(55), Article 21092175. https://doi.org /10.1186/1475-2891-9-55
42. Sen, C.K., Packer, L., & Hänninen, O. (2000). Handbook of oxidants and antioxidants in exercise. Elsevier.
43. Smith, M.S. (2006). Physiological profile of senior and junior England international amateur boxers. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 5(CSSI), 74-89.
44. Spirlandeli, A.L., Deminice, R., & Jordao, A. A. (2014). Plasma malondialdehyde as biomarker of lipid peroxidation: Effects of acute exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 35, 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-134513
45. Tauler, P., Aguiló, A., Gimeno, I., Fuentespina, E., Tur, J. A., & Pons, A.(2006 ). Response of blood cell antioxidant enzyme defences to antioxidant diet supplementation and to intense exercise. European Journal of Nutrition, 45(4),187-95. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00394-005-0582-7
46. Tonkonogi, M., Walsh, B., Svensson, M., & Sahlin, K. (2000). Mitochondrial function and antioxidative defence in human muscle: effects of endurance training and oxidative stress. The Journal of Physiology, 528 (2),379–88. https://doi.org /10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00379.x
47. Zazryn, T.R., Finch, C.F., &McCrory, P.A. (2003). 16 year study of injuries to professional kick boxers in the state of Victoria, Australia. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37,448-451. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.37.5.448