Avrupa Ülkelerinde Taşımacılık ve Depolama Sektöründeki İşgücü Maliyetlerinin Trend ve Küme Analizi Yoluyla Incelenmesi: 2007-2022

Öz

Avrupa'da taşımacılık ve depolama sektörünün işgücü piyasalarındaki eğilimler, işgücü maliyetlerindeki değişimler üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahip olmuştur. Teknolojik gelişmeler, artan özelleştirme ve deregülasyon oranı ve küresel sermaye akışındaki değişiklikler, özellikle Avrupa'da son birkaç on yılda lojistik sektöründe işgücü maliyetlerinde önemli değişikliklere yol açan temel nedenler arasındadır. Lojistik personeline ödenen ücretin miktarı ve zaman içindeki değişim hızı, sadece sermaye yatırımı tercihlerini değil aynı zamanda ülkelerin rekabet gücünü de etkileyen önemli unsurlardır. Zaman içinde benzer ücret artışlarına sahip ülke kümelerinin ekonomik, sosyal ve ekolojik sorunlarından da benzer ölçüde etkilendiği açıktır. Taşımacılık ve depolamada işgücü maliyetlerindeki olası eğilimlerin ülke bazında varlığının yanı sıra eğilimin bulunduğu ülkeler üzerinden küme analizi yapılması, sektöre ve araştırmaya dahil olan ülkelere ilişkin önemli benzerlik ve zıtlıkların ortaya çıkarılmasına yardımcı olacaktır. Bu araştırma için Eurostat tarafından yayınlanan NACE Rev. 2 Faaliyet-nominal değerine göre İşgücü Maliyeti Endeksi’ne ait üçer aylık dönemlere ait veriler kullanılmıştır. 2007 yılının ilk çeyreği ile 2022 yılının dördüncü çeyreği arasında toplam 64 çeyrek dönem ele alınmıştır. Araştırma, 23 farklı Avrupa ülkesinden toplanan verilerden yararlanılmıştır. Trend analizi için Mann-Kendall trend testi ve Sen's eğim testi, kümeanalizi için ise K-ortalamalar kümeleme algoritması kullanılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İşgücü Maliyet Endeksi
• Ulaştırma ve Depolama Sektörü
• Mann-Kendall Trend Testi
• Sen
• K-Means

Analyzing Labor Costs in The Transport and Storage Sector in European Countries Through Trend and Cluster Analysis:2007-2022

Öz

Trends in the transport and storage industry's labor markets in Europe have significantly impacted changes in labor costs. Technological advancements, increased privatization and deregulation, and changes in global capital flows are among the key reasons that have resulted in significant changes in labor costs in the logistics sector during the last few decades, especially in Europe. The amount of remuneration for logistics personnel and its pace of change over time are essential aspects influencing not just capital investment choices but also country competitiveness. The clusters of countries with similar wage increases over time are also impacted by their economic, social, and ecological problems to a similar extent. The existence of probable trends in labor costs in transport and storage on a country level, as well as cluster analysis over the countries where the trend is found, will aid in revealing significant similarities and contrasts concerning the sector and the countries involved in the research. The Labor Cost Index (LCI), according to NACE Rev. 2 Activity-nominal value, quarterly data released by Eurostat was utilized for this research. Sixty-four quarterly periods have been covered between the first quarter of 2007 and the fourth quarter of 2022. The research was based on data collected from 23 different European countries. The Mann-Kendall trend test and Sen's slope test were used for trend analysis, and the K-means clustering algorithm was used for cluster analysis.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Labor Cost Index
• Transport and Storage Sector
• Mann-Kendall Trend Test
• Sen
• K-Means

Kaynakça

1. Agarwal, Parag. 2023. “Analyze the Cost Factors in Logistics.” Universal Research Reports 10 (2): 32–35.
2. Ark, Bart van, Edwin Stuivenwold, and Gerard Ypma. 2005. “Unit Labour Costs, Productivity and International Competitiveness.” Groningen Growth and Development Centre, University of Groningen.
3. Bensman, David. 2008. “Globalization and the Labor Markets of the Logistics Industry.” In 2008 Industry Studies Conference Paper.
4. Beşel, CANSU, and Emine TANIR KAYIKÇI. 2019. “Serisel Korelasyonun Toplam Zenit Gecikmesi Zaman Serilerinde Parametrik Olmayan Trend Belirleme Üzerindeki Etkisi.” Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 9 (1). Gumushane University: 180–88.
5. Blackstone, John H., ed. 2010. APICS Dictionary. Thirteenth Edition. Chicago: APICS The Association for Operations Management.
6. Bonacich, Edna, and Jake B. Wilson. 2008. Getting the Goods: Ports, Labor, and the Logistics Revolution. Cornell University Press.
7. Bottalico, Andrea. 2021. “The Logistics Labor Market in the Context of Digitalization: Trends, Issues and Perspectives.” Digital Supply Chains and the Human Factor. Springer, 111–24.
8. Brill, Michael, Corey Holman, Chris Morris, Ronjoy Raichoudhary, and Noah Yosif. 2017. “Understanding the Labor Productivity and Compensation Gap.” https://ecommons.cornell.edu/handle/1813/77533.

9. Capuce, Chris, and Yossi Sheffi. 1994. “A Review and Evaluation of Logistics Metrics.” The Lnternational Journal of Logistics Management 5 (2). http://web.mit.edu/sheffi/www/selectedMedia/rvw_eval_log_metrics_intl_jrnl_log_vol05_no02_pp11_28.pdf.
10. Cowen, Deborah. 2014. The Deadly Life of Logistics: Mapping Violence in Global Trade. U of Minnesota Press. Danyluk, Martin. 2018. “Capital’s Logistical Fix: Accumulation, Globalization, and the Survival of Capitalism.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 36 (4). SAGE Publications Sage UK: London, England: 630–47.
11. Felipe, Jesus. 2005. “A Note On Competitiveness, Unit Labor Costs And Growth: Is" Kaldor’S Paradox" A Figment Of Interpretation?” Centre for Applied Macroeconomic Analysis, Crawford School of Public Policy CAMA Working Paper Series. https://cama.crawford.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publication/cama_crawford_anu_edu_au/2021-06/6_felipe_2005.pdf.
12. Goldschmidt, Deborah, and Johannes F. Schmieder. 2017. “The Rise of Domestic Outsourcing and the Evolution of the German Wage Structure.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 132 (3). Oxford University Press: 1165–1217.
13. Gülagiz, Fidan Kaya, and Suhap Sahin. 2017. “Comparison of Hierarchical and Non-Hierarchical Clustering Algorithms.” International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology 9 (1). Dorma Trading, Est. Publishing Manager: 6.
14. Gunes, Osman Enes, Aslan Cihat Basara, and Yasemin Şişman. 2021. “Trend Analysis of Precipitation Data Using Mann Kendall and Sen’s Slope Tests.” Intercontinental Geoinformation Days 2: 202–5.
15. Güneş, Sevcan, Filiz Yeşilyurt, and Hacer Simay Karaalp Orhan. 2013. “Does Trade Flow between Turkey and Germany Justifies Ricardian Theory?” Journal of Economics, Business and Management. https://gcris.pau.edu.tr/handle/11499/27149.
16. Gutelius, Beth. 2015. “Disarticulating Distribution: Labor Segmentation and Subcontracting in Global Logistics.” Geoforum 60. Elsevier: 53–61.
17. Handl, Julia, and Joshua Knowles. 2006. “Multi-Objective Clustering and Cluster Validation.” Multi-Objective Machine Learning. Springer, 21–47.
18. Hayaloğlu, Pınar. 2015. “The Impact of Developments in the Logistics Sector on Economic Growth: The Case of OECD Countries.” International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues 5 (2): 523–30.
19. Hossain, Ahmed, Ashifur Rahman, and Xiaoduan Sun. 2022. “Roadway Crash Trend Analysis with Innovative Trend Analysis and Mann-Kendall Test.”
20. Hummels, David. 1999. “Have International Transportation Costs Declined?” National Bureau of Economic Research.
21. Ittermann, Peter, Ulf Ortmann, Alfredo Virgillito, and Eva-Maria Walker. 2019. “Hat Die Digitalisierung Disruptive Folgen Für Einfacharbeit? Kritische Reflexion Und Empirische Befunde Aus Produktion Und Logistik.” Industrielle Beziehungen. Zeitschrift Für Arbeit, Organisation Und Management 26 (2). Verlag Barbara Budrich: 7–8.
22. Korinek, J., and P. Sourdin. 2011. “To What Extent Are High-Quality Logistics Services Trade Facilitating?” OECD Trade Policy Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, , no. 108. OECD. doi:doi.org/10.1787/5kggdthrj1zn-en.
23. Kumar, U., and J. Felipe. 2011. “Unit Labor Costs in the Eurozone: The Competitiveness Debate Again.” Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines.
24. La Londe, Bernard J., John R. Grabner, and James F. Robeson. 1971. “Integrated Distribution Systems: A Management Perspective.” International Journal of Physical Distribution 1 (1). MCB UP Ltd: 43–49.
25. “Labour Cost Index.” 2023. Labour Cost Index by NACE Rev. 2 - Index (2016=100) - Data Europa EU. June 24. https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/vqq1et0yey58xqvwcpfcw?locale=en.
26. Lambert, Douglas, James R. Stock, and Lisa M. Ellram. 1998. Fundamentals of Logistics Management. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
27. “Logistics Industry - Market Size 2028.” 2023. Statista. Accessed June 11. https://www.statista.com/statistics/943517/logistics-industry-global-cagr/.
28. “Logistics Industry Worldwide.” 2023. Statista. Accessed June 11. https://www.statista.com/topics/5691/logistics-industry-worldwide/.
29. Lummus, Rhonda R., Dennis W. Krumwiede, and Robert J. Vokurka. 2001. “The Relationship of Logistics to Supply Chain Management: Developing a Common Industry Definition.” Industrial Management & Data Systems 101 (8): 426–32. doi:10.1108/02635570110406730.
30. M. Coe, Neil. 2014. “Missing Links: Logistics, Governance and Upgrading in a Shifting Global Economy.” Review of International Political Economy 21 (1). Taylor & Francis: 224–56.
31. Mareï, Nora, and Michel Savy. 2021. “Global South Countries: The Dark Side of City Logistics. Dualisation vs Bipolarisation.” Transport Policy 100. Elsevier: 150–60.
32. Mishel, Lawrence. 2012. “The Wedges between Productivity and Median Compensation Growth.” Issue Brief 330: 1–7.
33. “NACE Rev. 2.” 2023. Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community. Accessed June 24. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/5902521/KS-RA-07-015-EN.PDF.
34. Niechoj, Torsten, Ulrike Stein, Sabine Stephan, and Rudolf Zwiener. 2011. “German Labour Costs: A Source of Instability in the Euro Area. Analysis of Eurostat Data for 2010.” IMK Report.
35. Pishvaee, Mir Saman, Hadi Basiri, and Mohsen Sheikh Sajadieh. 2009. “National Logistics Costs.” In Supply Chain and Logistics in National, International and Governmental Environment, edited by Reza Zanjirani Farahani, Nasrin Asgari, and Hoda Davarzani, 57–83. Contributions to Management Science. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag HD. doi:10.1007/978-3-7908-2156-7_4.
36. Popelo, Olha, Iryna Kychko, Svitlana Tulchynska, Zhanna Zhygalkevych, and Olha Treitiak. 2021. “The Impact of Digitalization on the Forms Change of Employment and the Labor Market in the Context of the Information Economy Development.” IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security 21 (5): 160–67.
37. Rantasila, Karri, and Lauri Ojala. 2015. “National-Level Logistics Costs: An Overview of Extant Research.” International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications 18 (4). Taylor & Francis: 313–24.
38. Sai Krishna, T. V., A. Yesu Babu, and R. Kiran Kumar. 2018. “Determination of Optimal Clusters for a Non-Hierarchical Clustering Paradigm K-Means Algorithm.” In Proceedings of International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Data Engineering: ICCIDE 2017, 301–16. Springer. “SCM Definitions and Glossary of Terms.” 2023. Accessed June 12. https://cscmp.org/CSCMP/Academia_and_Awards/SCM_Definitions_and_Glossary_of_Terms/CSCMP/Educate/SCM_Definitions_and_Glossary_of_Terms.aspx?hkey=60879588-f65f-4ab5-8c4b-6878815ef921. Shepherd, Ben. 2011. “Logistics Costs and Competitiveness: Measurement and Trade Policy Applications.” https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/38254.
39. Sun, Xu, Hao Yu, Wei Deng Solvang, Yi Wang, and Kesheng Wang. 2021. “The Application of Industry 4.0 Technologies in Sustainable Logistics: A Systematic Literature Review (2012–2020) to Explore Future Research Opportunities.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research. Springer, 1–32.
40. Thorsten Pohlert. 2023. “Package ‘Trend.’” Non-Parametric Trend Tests and Change-Point Detection. Accessed July 10. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/trend/trend.pdf. Vurdu, Selahattin Armağan. 2021. “Pandemide Altından Mücevher Tüketimi.” OPUS International Journal of Society Researches 18 (43). İdeal Kent Yayınları: 7220–46.