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Poverty and Deprivation of Women in Turkey

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 2, 168 - 199, 01.12.2017

Öz

A ccording to official statistics, women in Turkey are poorer than men. This study examines poverty prevalent among women, how they are deprived of sharing the household income and how this in turn raises the perception that they have neither control over their lives nor any freedom of choice. Statistics from the Turkish Statistical Institute’s Life Satisfaction Survey (LSS), conducted annually between 2003-2012, and the World Values Survey (WVS) from 1990 to 2011 are used in this study. LSS results point to an evident decrease in the level of poverty among women between 2003 and 2012. The WVS data demonstrates that employment status does not have any discernable effect on the poverty of women. Both data sets indicate that most important factors explaining women’s poverty are the level of education and whether women are widowed or divorced. Religiosity is associated with lower poverty, but on the other hand, is linked to high level of deprivation. The high number of children is strongly associated with women feeling they have no control over their lives. Even after controlling for other variables, poverty and deprivation have undisputable connection. For policy makers, the findings of this study suggest that reducing poverty among women necessitate policies that encourage high level of educational attainment among women to ensure they secure better jobs with better prospects, rather than policies that simply increase women’s employment. It also advises policies specifically targeting widowed or divorced women

Kaynakça

  • Agarwal, B. (1994). Gender and command over property: A critical gap in economic analy- sis and policy in South Asia. World Development, 22(10), 1455-1478.
  • Alkire, S., & Black, R. (1997). A Practical Reasoning Theory of Development Ethics: Furthe- ring the Capabilities Approach. Journal of International Development, 9(2), 263- 279.
  • ASBU. (2015). 2014 Turkey survey.
  • Baliamoune-Lutz, M. (2007). Globalisation and gender inequality: Is Africa different? Jour- nal of African Economies, 16(2), 301–348.
  • Bank, T. W. (2017). Poverty.
  • Bubeck, D. (1995). Care, Gender and Justice. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  • Clark, A. (1997). Job Satisfaction and Gender: Why Are Women so Happy at Work? Labor Economics, 4(4), 341-372.
  • Clark, A. E., & Oswald, A. J. (2002). Well-being in panels. unpublished working paper. Uni- versity of Warwick. United Kingdom.
  • Delpiano, J. C., & Simonsen, M. (2012). The Toll of Fertility on Mother’s Wellbeing. Journal of Health Economics, 752-766.
  • Di Tella, R., MacCulloch, R., & Oswald, A. (2003). The macroeconomics of happiness. Re- view of Economics and Statistics, 809-827.
  • Dijkstra, A., & Hanmer, L. (2000). Measuring Socio-Economic Gender Inequality: Toward an Alternative to the UNDP Gender-Replated Development Index. Feminist Econo- mics, 6(2), 41-75.
  • Donno, D., & Russett, B. (2005). Islam, Authoritarianism, and Female Empowerment: What Are the Linkages? World Politics, 56(04), 582 - 607.
  • Erdoğan, N. (2002). Yoksulluk Halleri: Türkiye’de Kentsel Yoksulluğun Toplumsal Görü- nümleri. İstanbul: Demokrasi Kitaplığı.
  • Fehr, E., & Schmidt, K. M. (1999). A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114, 817-868.
  • Fukuda-Parr, S. (1999). What does feminization of poverty mean? It isn’t just lack of income. Feminist Economics, 5(2), 99-103.
  • Goedhart, T., Halberstadt, V., Kapteyn, A., & Praag, B. M. S. v. (1977). The Poverty Line: Concept and Measurement. The Journal of Human Resources, 12, 503-520.
  • Humpries, J. (1993). “Gender Inequality and Economic Development”. In D. Bos (Ed.), Eco- nomics in a Changing World Vol. 3 Public Policy and Economics Organization (pp. 218-233). Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
  • Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • ISSP. (2013). International Social Survey Programme: Family and Changing Gender Roles IV. Retrieved from: http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/
  • Işık, D. (2013). “Just Like Prophet Mohammad Preached: Labor, Piety, and Charity in Con- temporary Turkey”. Feminist Economics, 20(4), 212-234.
  • Juhasz, A. (2012). A Satisfaction-Driven Poverty Indicator — A Bustle Around the Poverty Line. SOEP paper
  • Kapteyn, A., Kooreman, P., & Willemse, R. (1988). “Some Methodological Issues in the lementation of Subjective Poverty Denitions”. Journal of Human Resources, 23(2), 222-242.
  • Laderchi, C., Saith, R. R., & Stewart, F. (2003). “Does it matter that we do not agree on the definition of poverty? A comparison of four approaches”. Oxford Development Studies, 31(3), 243-274.
  • Lundberg, S., Pollak, R., & Wales, T. (1997). “Do Husband and Wives Pool Their Resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom Child Benefit”. Journal of Human Resources, 32(3), 463- 480.
  • Mill, J. (1869). The Subjection of Women. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Noland, M. (2005). “Religion and economic performance”. World Development, 33(8), 1215–1232.
  • Nussbaum, M. (2003). “Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements: Sen and Social Justice”. Feminist Economics, 9(2-3), 33 – 59.
  • Pearce, D. (1978). “The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work, and Welfare”. Urban and Social Change Review, 11(1), 28-36.
  • Ravallion, M. (2010). Poverty Lines across the World. Retrieved from World Bank
  • Robeyns, I. (2003). “Sen’s Capability Approach And Gender Inequality: Selecting Relevant Capabilities”. Feminist Economics, 9(2-3), 61 – 92.
  • Seguino, S. (2010). “Help or Hindrance? Religion’s Impact on Gender Inequality in Attitudes and Outcomes”. World Development, 38(8), 1308–1321.
  • Sen, A. (1985). Commodities and Capabilities. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  • Sen, A. (1995). “Capability and Well-Being”. In M. Nussbaum & A. Sen (Eds.), The Quality of Life (pp. 30-53). Oxford, the UK: Clarendon Press.
  • Sen, A. (1997). “From income inequality to economic inequality”. Southern Economic Journal, 64(2), 383-401.
  • Sen, A. (2004). “Elements of a Theory of Human Rights”. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 32(4), 315-356.
  • Şenses, F. (2001). Küreselleşmenin Öteki Yüzü Yoksulluk. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2003). “Parenthood and marital satisfaction: a meta-analytic review”. Journal of Marriage and Family, 574-583.
  • UNDP. (1995). Human Development Report. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • UNDP. (1997). Human Development Report. Retrieved from Oxford, UK
  • Wooldridge, J. (2009). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. Canada: Cengage.
  • Yıldırımalp, S., & Özdemir, A. (2013). “Yapabilirlikten Yoksunluk Bağlaminda Türkiye’de Kadın Yoksulluğu”. HAK-İŞ Uluslararası Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 2(4), 51-83.

Türkiye’de Kadın Yoksulluğu ve Yoksunluğu

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 2, 168 - 199, 01.12.2017

Öz

Resmî istatistiklere göre Türkiye’de kadınlar erkeklerden daha yoksuldur. Bu çalışmada maddi yoksulluk için hane halkı gelirinden memnuniyet, yoksunluk içinse kişinin hayatını yönlendirmedeki özgürlük algısı temel alınarak Türkiye’de kadın yoksulluğunun incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bunun için 2003-2012 yılları arası her yıl Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu tarafından yapılmış Yaşam Memnuniyeti Anketi’nin (YMA) ve 1990-2011 yılları arasında 6 kez yapılmış dünyada sosyal bilimciler arasında oldukça yaygın olarak kullanılan Dünya Değerler Araştırması’nın (DDA) mikro verisi kullanılmıştır. YMA sonuçlarına göre, kadınlar için yoksulluk 2003- 2012 döneminde net bir şekilde azalmıştır. DDA verilerine göre Türkiye’de kadın yoksulluğunu açıklamak açısından iş hayatı ile ilgili durum değişkenlerinin bir etkisi tespit edilememiştir. Her iki veri seti de eğitim seviyesinin ve eşi ölmüş veya boşanmış olmanın yoksulluğu açıklamada büyük etkiye sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Dindarlığın yoksulluğu azaltıcı, yoksunluğu ise arttırıcı bir etkisi olduğu görülmektedir. Çocuk sayısı ile yoksunluğun pozitif ilişkisi de dikkate değerdir. Diğer bütün değişkenler hesaba katıldığı durumda dahi yoksulluk ile yoksunluk arasında güçlü bir ilişki söz konusudur. Kadın yoksulluğunun azaltılmasına yönelik politikalar açısından bu çalışma, kadın istihdamını nicel olarak arttırmaya yönelik politikalardan ziyade kadınların daha iyi işlerde çalışmalarına olanak verecek kaliteli eğitim fırsatlarını arttırıcı politikaların daha verimli olacağına işaret etmektedir. Sonuçlar ayrıca boşanmış veya eşi ölmüş kadınlara yönelik politikaların da kadın yoksulluğunun azaltılmasında etkili olacağına işaret etmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Agarwal, B. (1994). Gender and command over property: A critical gap in economic analy- sis and policy in South Asia. World Development, 22(10), 1455-1478.
  • Alkire, S., & Black, R. (1997). A Practical Reasoning Theory of Development Ethics: Furthe- ring the Capabilities Approach. Journal of International Development, 9(2), 263- 279.
  • ASBU. (2015). 2014 Turkey survey.
  • Baliamoune-Lutz, M. (2007). Globalisation and gender inequality: Is Africa different? Jour- nal of African Economies, 16(2), 301–348.
  • Bank, T. W. (2017). Poverty.
  • Bubeck, D. (1995). Care, Gender and Justice. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  • Clark, A. (1997). Job Satisfaction and Gender: Why Are Women so Happy at Work? Labor Economics, 4(4), 341-372.
  • Clark, A. E., & Oswald, A. J. (2002). Well-being in panels. unpublished working paper. Uni- versity of Warwick. United Kingdom.
  • Delpiano, J. C., & Simonsen, M. (2012). The Toll of Fertility on Mother’s Wellbeing. Journal of Health Economics, 752-766.
  • Di Tella, R., MacCulloch, R., & Oswald, A. (2003). The macroeconomics of happiness. Re- view of Economics and Statistics, 809-827.
  • Dijkstra, A., & Hanmer, L. (2000). Measuring Socio-Economic Gender Inequality: Toward an Alternative to the UNDP Gender-Replated Development Index. Feminist Econo- mics, 6(2), 41-75.
  • Donno, D., & Russett, B. (2005). Islam, Authoritarianism, and Female Empowerment: What Are the Linkages? World Politics, 56(04), 582 - 607.
  • Erdoğan, N. (2002). Yoksulluk Halleri: Türkiye’de Kentsel Yoksulluğun Toplumsal Görü- nümleri. İstanbul: Demokrasi Kitaplığı.
  • Fehr, E., & Schmidt, K. M. (1999). A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114, 817-868.
  • Fukuda-Parr, S. (1999). What does feminization of poverty mean? It isn’t just lack of income. Feminist Economics, 5(2), 99-103.
  • Goedhart, T., Halberstadt, V., Kapteyn, A., & Praag, B. M. S. v. (1977). The Poverty Line: Concept and Measurement. The Journal of Human Resources, 12, 503-520.
  • Humpries, J. (1993). “Gender Inequality and Economic Development”. In D. Bos (Ed.), Eco- nomics in a Changing World Vol. 3 Public Policy and Economics Organization (pp. 218-233). Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
  • Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • ISSP. (2013). International Social Survey Programme: Family and Changing Gender Roles IV. Retrieved from: http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/
  • Işık, D. (2013). “Just Like Prophet Mohammad Preached: Labor, Piety, and Charity in Con- temporary Turkey”. Feminist Economics, 20(4), 212-234.
  • Juhasz, A. (2012). A Satisfaction-Driven Poverty Indicator — A Bustle Around the Poverty Line. SOEP paper
  • Kapteyn, A., Kooreman, P., & Willemse, R. (1988). “Some Methodological Issues in the lementation of Subjective Poverty Denitions”. Journal of Human Resources, 23(2), 222-242.
  • Laderchi, C., Saith, R. R., & Stewart, F. (2003). “Does it matter that we do not agree on the definition of poverty? A comparison of four approaches”. Oxford Development Studies, 31(3), 243-274.
  • Lundberg, S., Pollak, R., & Wales, T. (1997). “Do Husband and Wives Pool Their Resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom Child Benefit”. Journal of Human Resources, 32(3), 463- 480.
  • Mill, J. (1869). The Subjection of Women. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Noland, M. (2005). “Religion and economic performance”. World Development, 33(8), 1215–1232.
  • Nussbaum, M. (2003). “Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements: Sen and Social Justice”. Feminist Economics, 9(2-3), 33 – 59.
  • Pearce, D. (1978). “The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work, and Welfare”. Urban and Social Change Review, 11(1), 28-36.
  • Ravallion, M. (2010). Poverty Lines across the World. Retrieved from World Bank
  • Robeyns, I. (2003). “Sen’s Capability Approach And Gender Inequality: Selecting Relevant Capabilities”. Feminist Economics, 9(2-3), 61 – 92.
  • Seguino, S. (2010). “Help or Hindrance? Religion’s Impact on Gender Inequality in Attitudes and Outcomes”. World Development, 38(8), 1308–1321.
  • Sen, A. (1985). Commodities and Capabilities. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  • Sen, A. (1995). “Capability and Well-Being”. In M. Nussbaum & A. Sen (Eds.), The Quality of Life (pp. 30-53). Oxford, the UK: Clarendon Press.
  • Sen, A. (1997). “From income inequality to economic inequality”. Southern Economic Journal, 64(2), 383-401.
  • Sen, A. (2004). “Elements of a Theory of Human Rights”. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 32(4), 315-356.
  • Şenses, F. (2001). Küreselleşmenin Öteki Yüzü Yoksulluk. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2003). “Parenthood and marital satisfaction: a meta-analytic review”. Journal of Marriage and Family, 574-583.
  • UNDP. (1995). Human Development Report. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • UNDP. (1997). Human Development Report. Retrieved from Oxford, UK
  • Wooldridge, J. (2009). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. Canada: Cengage.
  • Yıldırımalp, S., & Özdemir, A. (2013). “Yapabilirlikten Yoksunluk Bağlaminda Türkiye’de Kadın Yoksulluğu”. HAK-İŞ Uluslararası Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 2(4), 51-83.
Toplam 41 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Zeynep Uğur

Yayımlanma Tarihi 1 Aralık 2017
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2017 Cilt: 3 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Uğur, Z. (2017). Türkiye’de Kadın Yoksulluğu ve Yoksunluğu. KADEM Kadın Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3(2), 168-199. https://doi.org/10.21798/kadem.20182365960