Araştırma Makalesi
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Yıl 2025, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 203 - 225, 28.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Arthur, C. (2019). Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Arthur, C. (2022). Post-Conflict Nation-Building. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1181-1196). Cham: Springer.
  • Barakat, S. ve Zyck, S. A. (2009). The Evolution of Post-Conflict Recovery. Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1069-1086.
  • Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). BTI 2024 Country Report—Rwanda. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://btiproject.org/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2024_RWA.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Blackie, L. ve Hitchcott, N. (2018). ‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 12(1), 24-37. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480
  • Buckley-Zistel, S. (2009). Nation, narration, unification? The politics of history teaching after the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 11(1), 31-53. doi:10.1080/14623520802703608
  • Calhoun, C. (2007). Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London: Routledge.
  • Call, C. ve Wyeth, V. (Ed.). (2008). Building States to Build Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Constitution of BiH. (1995). 12 Kasım 2025 tarihinde http://licodu.cois.it/?p=919&lang=en adresinden erişildi.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2014). Ruanda’da Trajedi, Adalet ve Uzlaşma. C. Çakmak, F. G. Çolak ve G. Güneysu (Ed.), 20.Yüzyılda Soykırım ve Etnik Temizlik içinde (ss. 13-63). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2022). Ruanda da Soykırım Siyaseti, Uzlaşma ve Uzlaşma Yaklaşımları. Alternatif Politika, 14(2), 332-358. doi:10.53376/ap.2022.12
  • Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Düzler, G. (2020). Ruanda Soykırımının Ekonomi Politiği. İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Elgenius, G. (2011). Symbols of Nations and Nationalism: Celebrating Nationhood. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 Eylül). Juvénal Habyarimana. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana adresinden erişildi.
  • Gellner, E. (2006). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.
  • Guibernau, M. (2007). The Identity of Nations. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Güzelipek, Y. A. (2015). Uluslararası Toplum ve Ruanda’da Normalleşme Çabaları. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 189-206.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. E. Hobsbawm ve T. Ranger (Ed.), The Invention of Tradition içinde (ss.1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ingelaere, B. (2016). Inside Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice after Genocide. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Jessee, E. (2017). Negotiating Genocide in Rwanda: The Politics of History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jones, B. D. (2001). Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kostić, R. (2008). Nationbuilding as an Instrument of Peace? Exploring Local Attitudes towards International Nationbuilding and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil Wars, 10(4), 384-412. doi:10.1080/13698240802354482
  • Kurtenbach, S. ve Ansorg, N. (2022). Security Sector Reform After Armed Conflict. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1362-1370). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing For Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
  • Lemarchand, R. (1995). Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23(2), 8-11. doi:10.2307/1166499
  • Lemay- Hébert, N. (2020). State-Building, State Fragility, and Interventions. F. O. Hampson, A. Özerdem ve J. Kent (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Peace, Security and Development içinde (ss. 56-66). Routledge.
  • Mayor, F. (1995). How psychology can contribute to a culture of peace. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1(1), 3-9. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0101_2
  • Mgbako, C. A. (2005). Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 18, 201-224.
  • Nathan, L. (2020). The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement. Third World Quarterly, 41(9), 1556-1574. doi:10.1080/01436597.2020.1771177
  • Newbury, C. (1998). Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda. Africa Today, 45(1), 7-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187200 adresinden erişildi.
  • Nkaka, R. (2024, 7 Nisan). How building “Rwandan-ness” helped the country recover from the 1994 genocide. The National. 23 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/07/rwanda-genocide-reconciliation-conflict-peacebuilding/ adresinden erişildi.
  • Özdemir, O. (2023). Adil Yargılamanın Uluslararası Biçimsel Standartlarının Gacaca Yargısı Analizi İçin Yeterliliği Sorunu. İnsan Hakları Yıllığı, 40, 1-54.
  • Özkırımlı, U. (2013). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Purdeková, A. (2015). Making Ubumwe: Power, State and Camps in Rwanda’s Unity-Building Project. New York: Berghahn Books.
  • Purdeková, A. (2020). Itinerant nationalisms and fracturing narratives: Incorporating regional dimensions of memory into peacebuilding. Memory Studies, 13(6), 1183-1199. doi:10.1177/1750698018800749
  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2007). Constituçao República Democrática de Timor-Leste/Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste Nian. Dili: Direcçao Nacional dos Direitos de Cidadania.
  • Rowanda, P. ve Buckley-Zistel, S. (2017). Changing Patterns of Acceptance. International Criminal Justice after the Rwandan Genocide. Nuremberg: International Nuremberg Principles Academy.
  • Said, E.W. (2000). Invention, Memory, and Place. Critical Inquiry, 26(2), 175-192.
  • Schabas, W. A. (2005). Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 879-895. doi:10.1093/jicj/mqi062
  • Smith, A. (1991). National Identity. Reno: University Nevada Press. S/RES/955. (1994, 8 Kasım). UN Security Council. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/198038?v=pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Stover, E. ve Weinstein, H. M. (Ed.). (2004). My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2011). Reeducation for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando. S. Straus ve L. Waldorf (Ed.), Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence içinde (ss. 311-339). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2013). Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Tiemessen, A. E. (2004). After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Studies Quarterly, 8(1), 57-76.
  • Tully, L. D. (2003). Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 26(2), 385-414.
  • United Nations Development Programme. (2022). Closure of Gacaca. UNDP. 7 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.undp.org/rwanda/news/closure-gacaca adresinden erişildi.
  • United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. (t.y.). The ICTR in Brief. 25 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal adresinden erişildi.
  • Wallis, J. (2014). Constitution Making During State Building. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Zorbas, E. (2004). Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Journal of Legal Studies, 1(1), 29-52. doi:10.1163/221097312X13397499735904

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 203 - 225, 28.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Arthur, C. (2019). Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Arthur, C. (2022). Post-Conflict Nation-Building. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1181-1196). Cham: Springer.
  • Barakat, S. ve Zyck, S. A. (2009). The Evolution of Post-Conflict Recovery. Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1069-1086.
  • Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). BTI 2024 Country Report—Rwanda. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://btiproject.org/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2024_RWA.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Blackie, L. ve Hitchcott, N. (2018). ‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 12(1), 24-37. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480
  • Buckley-Zistel, S. (2009). Nation, narration, unification? The politics of history teaching after the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 11(1), 31-53. doi:10.1080/14623520802703608
  • Calhoun, C. (2007). Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London: Routledge.
  • Call, C. ve Wyeth, V. (Ed.). (2008). Building States to Build Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Constitution of BiH. (1995). 12 Kasım 2025 tarihinde http://licodu.cois.it/?p=919&lang=en adresinden erişildi.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2014). Ruanda’da Trajedi, Adalet ve Uzlaşma. C. Çakmak, F. G. Çolak ve G. Güneysu (Ed.), 20.Yüzyılda Soykırım ve Etnik Temizlik içinde (ss. 13-63). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2022). Ruanda da Soykırım Siyaseti, Uzlaşma ve Uzlaşma Yaklaşımları. Alternatif Politika, 14(2), 332-358. doi:10.53376/ap.2022.12
  • Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Düzler, G. (2020). Ruanda Soykırımının Ekonomi Politiği. İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Elgenius, G. (2011). Symbols of Nations and Nationalism: Celebrating Nationhood. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 Eylül). Juvénal Habyarimana. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana adresinden erişildi.
  • Gellner, E. (2006). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.
  • Guibernau, M. (2007). The Identity of Nations. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Güzelipek, Y. A. (2015). Uluslararası Toplum ve Ruanda’da Normalleşme Çabaları. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 189-206.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. E. Hobsbawm ve T. Ranger (Ed.), The Invention of Tradition içinde (ss.1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ingelaere, B. (2016). Inside Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice after Genocide. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Jessee, E. (2017). Negotiating Genocide in Rwanda: The Politics of History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jones, B. D. (2001). Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kostić, R. (2008). Nationbuilding as an Instrument of Peace? Exploring Local Attitudes towards International Nationbuilding and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil Wars, 10(4), 384-412. doi:10.1080/13698240802354482
  • Kurtenbach, S. ve Ansorg, N. (2022). Security Sector Reform After Armed Conflict. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1362-1370). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing For Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
  • Lemarchand, R. (1995). Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23(2), 8-11. doi:10.2307/1166499
  • Lemay- Hébert, N. (2020). State-Building, State Fragility, and Interventions. F. O. Hampson, A. Özerdem ve J. Kent (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Peace, Security and Development içinde (ss. 56-66). Routledge.
  • Mayor, F. (1995). How psychology can contribute to a culture of peace. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1(1), 3-9. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0101_2
  • Mgbako, C. A. (2005). Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 18, 201-224.
  • Nathan, L. (2020). The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement. Third World Quarterly, 41(9), 1556-1574. doi:10.1080/01436597.2020.1771177
  • Newbury, C. (1998). Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda. Africa Today, 45(1), 7-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187200 adresinden erişildi.
  • Nkaka, R. (2024, 7 Nisan). How building “Rwandan-ness” helped the country recover from the 1994 genocide. The National. 23 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/07/rwanda-genocide-reconciliation-conflict-peacebuilding/ adresinden erişildi.
  • Özdemir, O. (2023). Adil Yargılamanın Uluslararası Biçimsel Standartlarının Gacaca Yargısı Analizi İçin Yeterliliği Sorunu. İnsan Hakları Yıllığı, 40, 1-54.
  • Özkırımlı, U. (2013). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Purdeková, A. (2015). Making Ubumwe: Power, State and Camps in Rwanda’s Unity-Building Project. New York: Berghahn Books.
  • Purdeková, A. (2020). Itinerant nationalisms and fracturing narratives: Incorporating regional dimensions of memory into peacebuilding. Memory Studies, 13(6), 1183-1199. doi:10.1177/1750698018800749
  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2007). Constituçao República Democrática de Timor-Leste/Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste Nian. Dili: Direcçao Nacional dos Direitos de Cidadania.
  • Rowanda, P. ve Buckley-Zistel, S. (2017). Changing Patterns of Acceptance. International Criminal Justice after the Rwandan Genocide. Nuremberg: International Nuremberg Principles Academy.
  • Said, E.W. (2000). Invention, Memory, and Place. Critical Inquiry, 26(2), 175-192.
  • Schabas, W. A. (2005). Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 879-895. doi:10.1093/jicj/mqi062
  • Smith, A. (1991). National Identity. Reno: University Nevada Press. S/RES/955. (1994, 8 Kasım). UN Security Council. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/198038?v=pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Stover, E. ve Weinstein, H. M. (Ed.). (2004). My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2011). Reeducation for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando. S. Straus ve L. Waldorf (Ed.), Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence içinde (ss. 311-339). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2013). Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Tiemessen, A. E. (2004). After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Studies Quarterly, 8(1), 57-76.
  • Tully, L. D. (2003). Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 26(2), 385-414.
  • United Nations Development Programme. (2022). Closure of Gacaca. UNDP. 7 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.undp.org/rwanda/news/closure-gacaca adresinden erişildi.
  • United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. (t.y.). The ICTR in Brief. 25 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal adresinden erişildi.
  • Wallis, J. (2014). Constitution Making During State Building. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Zorbas, E. (2004). Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Journal of Legal Studies, 1(1), 29-52. doi:10.1163/221097312X13397499735904

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 203 - 225, 28.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Arthur, C. (2019). Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Arthur, C. (2022). Post-Conflict Nation-Building. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1181-1196). Cham: Springer.
  • Barakat, S. ve Zyck, S. A. (2009). The Evolution of Post-Conflict Recovery. Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1069-1086.
  • Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). BTI 2024 Country Report—Rwanda. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://btiproject.org/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2024_RWA.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Blackie, L. ve Hitchcott, N. (2018). ‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 12(1), 24-37. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480
  • Buckley-Zistel, S. (2009). Nation, narration, unification? The politics of history teaching after the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 11(1), 31-53. doi:10.1080/14623520802703608
  • Calhoun, C. (2007). Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London: Routledge.
  • Call, C. ve Wyeth, V. (Ed.). (2008). Building States to Build Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Constitution of BiH. (1995). 12 Kasım 2025 tarihinde http://licodu.cois.it/?p=919&lang=en adresinden erişildi.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2014). Ruanda’da Trajedi, Adalet ve Uzlaşma. C. Çakmak, F. G. Çolak ve G. Güneysu (Ed.), 20.Yüzyılda Soykırım ve Etnik Temizlik içinde (ss. 13-63). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2022). Ruanda da Soykırım Siyaseti, Uzlaşma ve Uzlaşma Yaklaşımları. Alternatif Politika, 14(2), 332-358. doi:10.53376/ap.2022.12
  • Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Düzler, G. (2020). Ruanda Soykırımının Ekonomi Politiği. İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Elgenius, G. (2011). Symbols of Nations and Nationalism: Celebrating Nationhood. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 Eylül). Juvénal Habyarimana. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana adresinden erişildi.
  • Gellner, E. (2006). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.
  • Guibernau, M. (2007). The Identity of Nations. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Güzelipek, Y. A. (2015). Uluslararası Toplum ve Ruanda’da Normalleşme Çabaları. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 189-206.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. E. Hobsbawm ve T. Ranger (Ed.), The Invention of Tradition içinde (ss.1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ingelaere, B. (2016). Inside Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice after Genocide. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Jessee, E. (2017). Negotiating Genocide in Rwanda: The Politics of History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jones, B. D. (2001). Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kostić, R. (2008). Nationbuilding as an Instrument of Peace? Exploring Local Attitudes towards International Nationbuilding and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil Wars, 10(4), 384-412. doi:10.1080/13698240802354482
  • Kurtenbach, S. ve Ansorg, N. (2022). Security Sector Reform After Armed Conflict. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1362-1370). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing For Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
  • Lemarchand, R. (1995). Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23(2), 8-11. doi:10.2307/1166499
  • Lemay- Hébert, N. (2020). State-Building, State Fragility, and Interventions. F. O. Hampson, A. Özerdem ve J. Kent (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Peace, Security and Development içinde (ss. 56-66). Routledge.
  • Mayor, F. (1995). How psychology can contribute to a culture of peace. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1(1), 3-9. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0101_2
  • Mgbako, C. A. (2005). Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 18, 201-224.
  • Nathan, L. (2020). The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement. Third World Quarterly, 41(9), 1556-1574. doi:10.1080/01436597.2020.1771177
  • Newbury, C. (1998). Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda. Africa Today, 45(1), 7-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187200 adresinden erişildi.
  • Nkaka, R. (2024, 7 Nisan). How building “Rwandan-ness” helped the country recover from the 1994 genocide. The National. 23 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/07/rwanda-genocide-reconciliation-conflict-peacebuilding/ adresinden erişildi.
  • Özdemir, O. (2023). Adil Yargılamanın Uluslararası Biçimsel Standartlarının Gacaca Yargısı Analizi İçin Yeterliliği Sorunu. İnsan Hakları Yıllığı, 40, 1-54.
  • Özkırımlı, U. (2013). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Purdeková, A. (2015). Making Ubumwe: Power, State and Camps in Rwanda’s Unity-Building Project. New York: Berghahn Books.
  • Purdeková, A. (2020). Itinerant nationalisms and fracturing narratives: Incorporating regional dimensions of memory into peacebuilding. Memory Studies, 13(6), 1183-1199. doi:10.1177/1750698018800749
  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2007). Constituçao República Democrática de Timor-Leste/Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste Nian. Dili: Direcçao Nacional dos Direitos de Cidadania.
  • Rowanda, P. ve Buckley-Zistel, S. (2017). Changing Patterns of Acceptance. International Criminal Justice after the Rwandan Genocide. Nuremberg: International Nuremberg Principles Academy.
  • Said, E.W. (2000). Invention, Memory, and Place. Critical Inquiry, 26(2), 175-192.
  • Schabas, W. A. (2005). Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 879-895. doi:10.1093/jicj/mqi062
  • Smith, A. (1991). National Identity. Reno: University Nevada Press. S/RES/955. (1994, 8 Kasım). UN Security Council. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/198038?v=pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Stover, E. ve Weinstein, H. M. (Ed.). (2004). My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2011). Reeducation for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando. S. Straus ve L. Waldorf (Ed.), Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence içinde (ss. 311-339). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2013). Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Tiemessen, A. E. (2004). After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Studies Quarterly, 8(1), 57-76.
  • Tully, L. D. (2003). Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 26(2), 385-414.
  • United Nations Development Programme. (2022). Closure of Gacaca. UNDP. 7 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.undp.org/rwanda/news/closure-gacaca adresinden erişildi.
  • United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. (t.y.). The ICTR in Brief. 25 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal adresinden erişildi.
  • Wallis, J. (2014). Constitution Making During State Building. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Zorbas, E. (2004). Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Journal of Legal Studies, 1(1), 29-52. doi:10.1163/221097312X13397499735904

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 203 - 225, 28.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Arthur, C. (2019). Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Arthur, C. (2022). Post-Conflict Nation-Building. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1181-1196). Cham: Springer.
  • Barakat, S. ve Zyck, S. A. (2009). The Evolution of Post-Conflict Recovery. Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1069-1086.
  • Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). BTI 2024 Country Report—Rwanda. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://btiproject.org/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2024_RWA.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Blackie, L. ve Hitchcott, N. (2018). ‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 12(1), 24-37. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480
  • Buckley-Zistel, S. (2009). Nation, narration, unification? The politics of history teaching after the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 11(1), 31-53. doi:10.1080/14623520802703608
  • Calhoun, C. (2007). Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London: Routledge.
  • Call, C. ve Wyeth, V. (Ed.). (2008). Building States to Build Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Constitution of BiH. (1995). 12 Kasım 2025 tarihinde http://licodu.cois.it/?p=919&lang=en adresinden erişildi.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2014). Ruanda’da Trajedi, Adalet ve Uzlaşma. C. Çakmak, F. G. Çolak ve G. Güneysu (Ed.), 20.Yüzyılda Soykırım ve Etnik Temizlik içinde (ss. 13-63). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2022). Ruanda da Soykırım Siyaseti, Uzlaşma ve Uzlaşma Yaklaşımları. Alternatif Politika, 14(2), 332-358. doi:10.53376/ap.2022.12
  • Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Düzler, G. (2020). Ruanda Soykırımının Ekonomi Politiği. İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Elgenius, G. (2011). Symbols of Nations and Nationalism: Celebrating Nationhood. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 Eylül). Juvénal Habyarimana. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana adresinden erişildi.
  • Gellner, E. (2006). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.
  • Guibernau, M. (2007). The Identity of Nations. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Güzelipek, Y. A. (2015). Uluslararası Toplum ve Ruanda’da Normalleşme Çabaları. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 189-206.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. E. Hobsbawm ve T. Ranger (Ed.), The Invention of Tradition içinde (ss.1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ingelaere, B. (2016). Inside Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice after Genocide. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Jessee, E. (2017). Negotiating Genocide in Rwanda: The Politics of History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jones, B. D. (2001). Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kostić, R. (2008). Nationbuilding as an Instrument of Peace? Exploring Local Attitudes towards International Nationbuilding and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil Wars, 10(4), 384-412. doi:10.1080/13698240802354482
  • Kurtenbach, S. ve Ansorg, N. (2022). Security Sector Reform After Armed Conflict. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1362-1370). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing For Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
  • Lemarchand, R. (1995). Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23(2), 8-11. doi:10.2307/1166499
  • Lemay- Hébert, N. (2020). State-Building, State Fragility, and Interventions. F. O. Hampson, A. Özerdem ve J. Kent (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Peace, Security and Development içinde (ss. 56-66). Routledge.
  • Mayor, F. (1995). How psychology can contribute to a culture of peace. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1(1), 3-9. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0101_2
  • Mgbako, C. A. (2005). Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 18, 201-224.
  • Nathan, L. (2020). The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement. Third World Quarterly, 41(9), 1556-1574. doi:10.1080/01436597.2020.1771177
  • Newbury, C. (1998). Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda. Africa Today, 45(1), 7-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187200 adresinden erişildi.
  • Nkaka, R. (2024, 7 Nisan). How building “Rwandan-ness” helped the country recover from the 1994 genocide. The National. 23 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/07/rwanda-genocide-reconciliation-conflict-peacebuilding/ adresinden erişildi.
  • Özdemir, O. (2023). Adil Yargılamanın Uluslararası Biçimsel Standartlarının Gacaca Yargısı Analizi İçin Yeterliliği Sorunu. İnsan Hakları Yıllığı, 40, 1-54.
  • Özkırımlı, U. (2013). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Purdeková, A. (2015). Making Ubumwe: Power, State and Camps in Rwanda’s Unity-Building Project. New York: Berghahn Books.
  • Purdeková, A. (2020). Itinerant nationalisms and fracturing narratives: Incorporating regional dimensions of memory into peacebuilding. Memory Studies, 13(6), 1183-1199. doi:10.1177/1750698018800749
  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2007). Constituçao República Democrática de Timor-Leste/Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste Nian. Dili: Direcçao Nacional dos Direitos de Cidadania.
  • Rowanda, P. ve Buckley-Zistel, S. (2017). Changing Patterns of Acceptance. International Criminal Justice after the Rwandan Genocide. Nuremberg: International Nuremberg Principles Academy.
  • Said, E.W. (2000). Invention, Memory, and Place. Critical Inquiry, 26(2), 175-192.
  • Schabas, W. A. (2005). Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 879-895. doi:10.1093/jicj/mqi062
  • Smith, A. (1991). National Identity. Reno: University Nevada Press. S/RES/955. (1994, 8 Kasım). UN Security Council. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/198038?v=pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Stover, E. ve Weinstein, H. M. (Ed.). (2004). My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2011). Reeducation for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando. S. Straus ve L. Waldorf (Ed.), Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence içinde (ss. 311-339). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2013). Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Tiemessen, A. E. (2004). After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Studies Quarterly, 8(1), 57-76.
  • Tully, L. D. (2003). Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 26(2), 385-414.
  • United Nations Development Programme. (2022). Closure of Gacaca. UNDP. 7 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.undp.org/rwanda/news/closure-gacaca adresinden erişildi.
  • United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. (t.y.). The ICTR in Brief. 25 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal adresinden erişildi.
  • Wallis, J. (2014). Constitution Making During State Building. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Zorbas, E. (2004). Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Journal of Legal Studies, 1(1), 29-52. doi:10.1163/221097312X13397499735904

Ruanda'da Çatışma Sonrası Ulusal Kimlik İnşası

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 203 - 225, 28.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837

Öz

Soğuk Savaş sonrası dönemde sayıları artan iç savaşların pek çoğunda farklı kimliksel gruplar çatışma içerisine girmiş, şiddetli çatışmaların yanında etnik temizlik ve soykırım gibi sonuçlar yaşanmıştır. Bu tür örneklerde çatışmalar sona erse de kimliksel ayrışmaların ve gerilimlerin kalıcı barış ve toplumsal uzlaşmanın sağlanmasının önünde engel oluşturmaya devam ettiği görülmektedir. Derin toplumsal bölünmelerin mevcut olduğu çatışma sonrası ülkelerde toplumsal uzlaşmanın, barış ve istikrarın nasıl sağlanabileceği konusu önemli bir sorun olarak varlığını korumaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, gruplar arası gerilimlerin oluşumu ve mevcut gerilimlerin ortadan kalkmasıyla ilgili sosyal psikoloji alanındaki öncü çalışmalardan biri olan Robbers Cave Deneyinin bulguları ışığında bu soruna yönelik çıkarımlarda bulunmaktır. Nitel araştırma yöntemine ait bir desen olan örnek olay çalışması gerçekleştirilerek, 1990’larda soykırımın yaşandığı Ruanda örneği, çatışma sonrası toplumsal uzlaşma ve istikrarın sağlanması çerçevesinde incelenmiştir. Soykırım sonrası Ruanda’da kimliksel ayrışmaları giderecek şekilde ortak çıkarlara ve sorunlara odaklanılması ve farklı kimlik gruplarını kapsayan Ruandalı kimliğinin öne çıkarılması gibi politikalar, Robbers Cave Deneyinin gruplar arası gerilimlerin azaltılmasıyla ilgili ortaya koyduğu bulgularla uyum içindedir. Bu çerçevede, çatışma sonrası toplumsal uzlaşmanın inşa edilmesinde nispeten başarılı bir örnek olarak öne çıkan Ruanda örneği, Robbers Cave Deneyinin çatışma çözümü ve barış inşası süreçlerinde yararlanılabilecek çıkarımlar sağladığını göstermektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Arthur, C. (2019). Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Arthur, C. (2022). Post-Conflict Nation-Building. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1181-1196). Cham: Springer.
  • Barakat, S. ve Zyck, S. A. (2009). The Evolution of Post-Conflict Recovery. Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1069-1086.
  • Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). BTI 2024 Country Report—Rwanda. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://btiproject.org/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2024_RWA.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Blackie, L. ve Hitchcott, N. (2018). ‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 12(1), 24-37. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480
  • Buckley-Zistel, S. (2009). Nation, narration, unification? The politics of history teaching after the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 11(1), 31-53. doi:10.1080/14623520802703608
  • Calhoun, C. (2007). Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London: Routledge.
  • Call, C. ve Wyeth, V. (Ed.). (2008). Building States to Build Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Constitution of BiH. (1995). 12 Kasım 2025 tarihinde http://licodu.cois.it/?p=919&lang=en adresinden erişildi.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2014). Ruanda’da Trajedi, Adalet ve Uzlaşma. C. Çakmak, F. G. Çolak ve G. Güneysu (Ed.), 20.Yüzyılda Soykırım ve Etnik Temizlik içinde (ss. 13-63). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2022). Ruanda da Soykırım Siyaseti, Uzlaşma ve Uzlaşma Yaklaşımları. Alternatif Politika, 14(2), 332-358. doi:10.53376/ap.2022.12
  • Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Düzler, G. (2020). Ruanda Soykırımının Ekonomi Politiği. İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Elgenius, G. (2011). Symbols of Nations and Nationalism: Celebrating Nationhood. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 Eylül). Juvénal Habyarimana. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana adresinden erişildi.
  • Gellner, E. (2006). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.
  • Guibernau, M. (2007). The Identity of Nations. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Güzelipek, Y. A. (2015). Uluslararası Toplum ve Ruanda’da Normalleşme Çabaları. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 189-206.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. E. Hobsbawm ve T. Ranger (Ed.), The Invention of Tradition içinde (ss.1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ingelaere, B. (2016). Inside Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice after Genocide. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Jessee, E. (2017). Negotiating Genocide in Rwanda: The Politics of History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jones, B. D. (2001). Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kostić, R. (2008). Nationbuilding as an Instrument of Peace? Exploring Local Attitudes towards International Nationbuilding and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil Wars, 10(4), 384-412. doi:10.1080/13698240802354482
  • Kurtenbach, S. ve Ansorg, N. (2022). Security Sector Reform After Armed Conflict. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1362-1370). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing For Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
  • Lemarchand, R. (1995). Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23(2), 8-11. doi:10.2307/1166499
  • Lemay- Hébert, N. (2020). State-Building, State Fragility, and Interventions. F. O. Hampson, A. Özerdem ve J. Kent (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Peace, Security and Development içinde (ss. 56-66). Routledge.
  • Mayor, F. (1995). How psychology can contribute to a culture of peace. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1(1), 3-9. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0101_2
  • Mgbako, C. A. (2005). Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 18, 201-224.
  • Nathan, L. (2020). The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement. Third World Quarterly, 41(9), 1556-1574. doi:10.1080/01436597.2020.1771177
  • Newbury, C. (1998). Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda. Africa Today, 45(1), 7-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187200 adresinden erişildi.
  • Nkaka, R. (2024, 7 Nisan). How building “Rwandan-ness” helped the country recover from the 1994 genocide. The National. 23 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/07/rwanda-genocide-reconciliation-conflict-peacebuilding/ adresinden erişildi.
  • Özdemir, O. (2023). Adil Yargılamanın Uluslararası Biçimsel Standartlarının Gacaca Yargısı Analizi İçin Yeterliliği Sorunu. İnsan Hakları Yıllığı, 40, 1-54.
  • Özkırımlı, U. (2013). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Purdeková, A. (2015). Making Ubumwe: Power, State and Camps in Rwanda’s Unity-Building Project. New York: Berghahn Books.
  • Purdeková, A. (2020). Itinerant nationalisms and fracturing narratives: Incorporating regional dimensions of memory into peacebuilding. Memory Studies, 13(6), 1183-1199. doi:10.1177/1750698018800749
  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2007). Constituçao República Democrática de Timor-Leste/Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste Nian. Dili: Direcçao Nacional dos Direitos de Cidadania.
  • Rowanda, P. ve Buckley-Zistel, S. (2017). Changing Patterns of Acceptance. International Criminal Justice after the Rwandan Genocide. Nuremberg: International Nuremberg Principles Academy.
  • Said, E.W. (2000). Invention, Memory, and Place. Critical Inquiry, 26(2), 175-192.
  • Schabas, W. A. (2005). Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 879-895. doi:10.1093/jicj/mqi062
  • Smith, A. (1991). National Identity. Reno: University Nevada Press. S/RES/955. (1994, 8 Kasım). UN Security Council. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/198038?v=pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Stover, E. ve Weinstein, H. M. (Ed.). (2004). My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2011). Reeducation for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando. S. Straus ve L. Waldorf (Ed.), Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence içinde (ss. 311-339). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2013). Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Tiemessen, A. E. (2004). After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Studies Quarterly, 8(1), 57-76.
  • Tully, L. D. (2003). Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 26(2), 385-414.
  • United Nations Development Programme. (2022). Closure of Gacaca. UNDP. 7 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.undp.org/rwanda/news/closure-gacaca adresinden erişildi.
  • United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. (t.y.). The ICTR in Brief. 25 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal adresinden erişildi.
  • Wallis, J. (2014). Constitution Making During State Building. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Zorbas, E. (2004). Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Journal of Legal Studies, 1(1), 29-52. doi:10.1163/221097312X13397499735904

Post-Conflict Nation-Building in Rwanda

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 203 - 225, 28.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837

Öz

In the post-Cold War era, the number of internal conflicts has increased, with numerous examples of different identity groups coming into violent conflict with each other, leading to devastating consequences such as genocide and ethnic cleansing. The cessation of hostilities does not necessarily result in the resolution of identity-based divisions and tensions, which continue to impede the establishment of lasting peace and reconciliation. In the context of post-conflict societies characterized by profound social divisions, the pursuit of reconciliation, peace, and stability emerges as a pressing challenge. This study aims to contribute to the understanding of this issue by drawing on the findings of the Robbers Cave Experiment, a seminal study in Social Psychology that explores the emergence and reduction of intergroup tensions. The study employs a qualitative research method and a case study design to examine post-genocide Rwanda, focusing on efforts to achieve reconciliation and stability. Rwanda's post-genocide policies, such as the emphasis on shared interests and common problems while promoting a unified Rwandan identity encompassing different ethnic groups, align with the Robbers Cave Experiment's findings on reducing intergroup tensions. In this context, the Rwandan case is noteworthy as a relatively successful example of post-conflict reconciliation, providing evidence that the findings of the Robbers Cave Experiment offer valuable insights for conflict resolution and peacebuilding efforts.

Kaynakça

  • Arthur, C. (2019). Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Arthur, C. (2022). Post-Conflict Nation-Building. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1181-1196). Cham: Springer.
  • Barakat, S. ve Zyck, S. A. (2009). The Evolution of Post-Conflict Recovery. Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1069-1086.
  • Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2024). BTI 2024 Country Report—Rwanda. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://btiproject.org/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2024_RWA.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Blackie, L. ve Hitchcott, N. (2018). ‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 12(1), 24-37. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480
  • Buckley-Zistel, S. (2009). Nation, narration, unification? The politics of history teaching after the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 11(1), 31-53. doi:10.1080/14623520802703608
  • Calhoun, C. (2007). Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London: Routledge.
  • Call, C. ve Wyeth, V. (Ed.). (2008). Building States to Build Peace. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Constitution of BiH. (1995). 12 Kasım 2025 tarihinde http://licodu.cois.it/?p=919&lang=en adresinden erişildi.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2014). Ruanda’da Trajedi, Adalet ve Uzlaşma. C. Çakmak, F. G. Çolak ve G. Güneysu (Ed.), 20.Yüzyılda Soykırım ve Etnik Temizlik içinde (ss. 13-63). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Çoban Öztürk, E. (2022). Ruanda da Soykırım Siyaseti, Uzlaşma ve Uzlaşma Yaklaşımları. Alternatif Politika, 14(2), 332-358. doi:10.53376/ap.2022.12
  • Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
  • Düzler, G. (2020). Ruanda Soykırımının Ekonomi Politiği. İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Elgenius, G. (2011). Symbols of Nations and Nationalism: Celebrating Nationhood. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 Eylül). Juvénal Habyarimana. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana adresinden erişildi.
  • Gellner, E. (2006). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell Publications.
  • Guibernau, M. (2007). The Identity of Nations. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Güzelipek, Y. A. (2015). Uluslararası Toplum ve Ruanda’da Normalleşme Çabaları. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(2), 189-206.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. E. Hobsbawm ve T. Ranger (Ed.), The Invention of Tradition içinde (ss.1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ingelaere, B. (2016). Inside Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice after Genocide. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Jessee, E. (2017). Negotiating Genocide in Rwanda: The Politics of History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Jones, B. D. (2001). Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kostić, R. (2008). Nationbuilding as an Instrument of Peace? Exploring Local Attitudes towards International Nationbuilding and Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil Wars, 10(4), 384-412. doi:10.1080/13698240802354482
  • Kurtenbach, S. ve Ansorg, N. (2022). Security Sector Reform After Armed Conflict. O. P. Richmond ve G. Visoka (Ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies içinde (ss. 1362-1370). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing For Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
  • Lemarchand, R. (1995). Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23(2), 8-11. doi:10.2307/1166499
  • Lemay- Hébert, N. (2020). State-Building, State Fragility, and Interventions. F. O. Hampson, A. Özerdem ve J. Kent (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Peace, Security and Development içinde (ss. 56-66). Routledge.
  • Mayor, F. (1995). How psychology can contribute to a culture of peace. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1(1), 3-9. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0101_2
  • Mgbako, C. A. (2005). Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 18, 201-224.
  • Nathan, L. (2020). The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement. Third World Quarterly, 41(9), 1556-1574. doi:10.1080/01436597.2020.1771177
  • Newbury, C. (1998). Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda. Africa Today, 45(1), 7-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187200 adresinden erişildi.
  • Nkaka, R. (2024, 7 Nisan). How building “Rwandan-ness” helped the country recover from the 1994 genocide. The National. 23 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/07/rwanda-genocide-reconciliation-conflict-peacebuilding/ adresinden erişildi.
  • Özdemir, O. (2023). Adil Yargılamanın Uluslararası Biçimsel Standartlarının Gacaca Yargısı Analizi İçin Yeterliliği Sorunu. İnsan Hakları Yıllığı, 40, 1-54.
  • Özkırımlı, U. (2013). Milliyetçilik Kuramları: Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Purdeková, A. (2015). Making Ubumwe: Power, State and Camps in Rwanda’s Unity-Building Project. New York: Berghahn Books.
  • Purdeková, A. (2020). Itinerant nationalisms and fracturing narratives: Incorporating regional dimensions of memory into peacebuilding. Memory Studies, 13(6), 1183-1199. doi:10.1177/1750698018800749
  • República Democrática de Timor-Leste (RDTL). (2007). Constituçao República Democrática de Timor-Leste/Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste Nian. Dili: Direcçao Nacional dos Direitos de Cidadania.
  • Rowanda, P. ve Buckley-Zistel, S. (2017). Changing Patterns of Acceptance. International Criminal Justice after the Rwandan Genocide. Nuremberg: International Nuremberg Principles Academy.
  • Said, E.W. (2000). Invention, Memory, and Place. Critical Inquiry, 26(2), 175-192.
  • Schabas, W. A. (2005). Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 879-895. doi:10.1093/jicj/mqi062
  • Smith, A. (1991). National Identity. Reno: University Nevada Press. S/RES/955. (1994, 8 Kasım). UN Security Council. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/198038?v=pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Stover, E. ve Weinstein, H. M. (Ed.). (2004). My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2011). Reeducation for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando. S. Straus ve L. Waldorf (Ed.), Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence içinde (ss. 311-339). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Thomson, S. (2013). Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Tiemessen, A. E. (2004). After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Studies Quarterly, 8(1), 57-76.
  • Tully, L. D. (2003). Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 26(2), 385-414.
  • United Nations Development Programme. (2022). Closure of Gacaca. UNDP. 7 Mart 2025 tarihinde https://www.undp.org/rwanda/news/closure-gacaca adresinden erişildi.
  • United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. (t.y.). The ICTR in Brief. 25 Şubat 2025 tarihinde https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal adresinden erişildi.
  • Wallis, J. (2014). Constitution Making During State Building. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Zorbas, E. (2004). Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. African Journal of Legal Studies, 1(1), 29-52. doi:10.1163/221097312X13397499735904
Toplam 49 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Uluslararası İlişkiler (Diğer)
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

İbrahim Fevzi Güven 0000-0001-8616-947X

Gönderilme Tarihi 10 Ekim 2025
Kabul Tarihi 24 Aralık 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi 28 Aralık 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Güven, İ. F. (2025). Ruanda’da Çatışma Sonrası Ulusal Kimlik İnşası. Kocatepe Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 4(2), 203-225. https://doi.org/10.61694/kbbd.1800837