Global Foreign Language Confidence: Cross-Cultural Validation and Factor Structure Revision from a World Englishes Perspective

Öz

Özet Küresel iletişim çağında, Yabancı Dil Güveninin (Foreign Language Confidence, FLC) geleneksel ana dili konuşuru normlarının ötesinde kuramsallaştırılması gerekmektedir. Dünya İngilizceleri yaklaşımından beslenen Liu’nun (2024) Yabancı Dil Güveni Ölçeği (Foreign Language Confidence Scale, FLCS) başlangıçta üç faktörlü bir yapı önermiştir: Yabancı Dil Yeterliği, Dilsel Güvenlik Duygusu ve Dilsel Aidiyet Duygusu. Ancak bu ölçeğin geçerleme çalışması yalnızca Çinli İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenenlerle sınırlı kalmış, bu da ölçeğin kültürlerarası genellenebilirliğini sınırlandırmıştır. Bu çalışma, Türkiye’deki bir üniversitede İngilizceyi ortak iletişim dili (English as a Lingua Franca, ELF) olarak kullanan 360 uluslararası öğrenci arasında 16 maddelik FLCS’nin faktör yapısını ve ölçme değişmezliğini incelemektedir. Doğrulayıcı faktör analizi, özgün üç faktörlü modeli desteklememiştir. Yeterlik ile Güvenlik arasındaki yüksek korelasyon, bu çok dilli bağlamda bu boyutların birbirinden ayırt edilemediğini göstermiştir. Buna bağlı olarak, Yeterlik ile Güvenliğin tek bir “Pragmatik Güven” faktöründe birleştiği, buna karşılık Dilsel Aidiyetin ayrı bir boyut olarak korunduğu daha yalın iki faktörlü bir model oluşturulmuştur. Gözden geçirilen model, uyum indeksleri ve güçlü iç tutarlılık değerleri göstermiştir. Çok gruplu analizler; cinsiyet, yaş, uyruk ve üniversitede kalış süresi açısından yapılandırımsal, metrik ve skaler değişmezliği ortaya koymuş; ancak önceki İngilizce öğrenim süresi bakımından tam skaler değişmezlik sağlanamamıştır. Bu bulgular, FLCS’nin psikometrik geçerliliğini ve bağlamsal uyarlanabilirliğini desteklemekte; aynı zamanda ELF bağlamlarında pragmatik güvenin bütünleşik bir yapı olarak öne çıktığını göstermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Foreign language confidence
• Global foreign language confidence
• World Englishes factor structure
• Measurement invariance
• Cross-cultural validation

Destekleyen Kurum

yok

Proje Numarası

none

Etik Beyan

Makale için Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesinin 28.03.2025 tarih ve 2025-387 sayılı Etik Kurul Onay Belgesi bulunmaktadır.

Teşekkür

Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Uluslararası Öğrenci İşleri Birimine veri toplama sürecinde gösterdiği katkı ve nezaket için teşekkür ederiz

Global Foreign Language Confidence: Cross-Cultural Validation and Factor Structure Revision from a World Englishes Perspective

Öz

Abstract In an era of global communication, Foreign Language Confidence (FLC) needs to be theorised beyond traditional native-speaker norms. Liu’s (2024) Foreign Language Confidence Scale (FLCS), informed by World Englishes, originally proposed a three-factor structure: Foreign Language Competence, Sense of Linguistic Security, and Sense of Linguistic Ownership. However, its validation was restricted to Chinese EFL learners, limiting its cross-cultural generalisability. This study investigates the factor structure and measurement invariance of the 16-item FLCS among 360 international students using English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) at a Turkish university. Confirmatory factor analysis did not support the original three-factor model. A high correlation between Competence and Security indicated that these dimensions were indistinguishable in this multilingual context. Accordingly, a more parsimonious two-factor model was specified, in which Competence and Security merge into a single “Pragmatic Confidence” factor, while Linguistic Ownership remains distinct. The revised model showed fit indices and strong internal consistency. Multi-group analyses demonstrated configural, metric, and scalar invariance across gender, age, nationality, and length of university stay, but not full scalar invariance for duration of prior English learning. These findings support the psychometric validity and contextual adaptability of the FLCS, while highlighting pragmatic confidence as a unified construct in ELF settings.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Foreign Language Confidence
• Global Foreign Language Confidence
• World Englishes Factor Structure
• Measurement Invarience
• Cross-cultural validation

Destekleyen Kurum

none

Proje Numarası

none

Etik Beyan

At the meeting numbered 3, dated 28.03.2025, the necessary permissions were granted by the Ondokuz Mayıs University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee with decision number 2025-387.

Teşekkür

We would like to thank the Ondokuz Mayıs University International Student Affairs Unit for their contribution and courtesy during the data collection process.

Kaynakça

1. Al-Hoorie, Ali H., Hiver, Phil., Kim, Tae-Young, & De Costa, Peter. 2021. The L2 Motivational Self System: A meta-analysis of 124 studies. Routledge.
2. Bandura, Albert. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
3. Bolton, Kingsley. 2018. World Englishes: Current trends and future directions. Asian Englishes, 20(1), 2-19.
4. Byrne, Barbara M. 2012. Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
5. Byrne, Barbara M. 2016. Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (3rd ed.). Routledge.
6. Canagarajah, Suresh. 2014. In search of a new paradigm for teaching English as an international language. TESOL Journal, 5(4), 767-785. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.166
7. Chen, Fang Fang. 2007. Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
8. Cheung, Gordon W., & Rensvold, Roger. B. 2002. Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5

9. Clément, Richard. 1980. Ethnicity, contact and communicative competence in a second language. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson, & P. M. Smith (Eds.), Language: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 147-154). Pergamon Press.
10. Clément, Richard., Dörnyei, Zoltán., & Noels, Kimberley A. 1994. Motivation, self-confidence, and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom. Language Learning, 44(3), 417-448.
11. Darvin, Ron., & Norton, Bonny. 2015. Identity and a model of investment in language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 36-56.
12. Dewaele, Jean-Marc. 2018. Why the dichotomy 'L1 versus LX user' is better than 'native versus non-native speaker'. Applied Linguistics, 39(2), 236-240. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amw055
13. Dewaele, Jean-Marc., & MacIntyre, Peter D. 2019. The predictive power of sociobiographical and task-related variables on Foreign Language Enjoyment and Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 9(4), 633–660.
14. Dewey, Martin. 2007. English as a lingua franca: A new variety in the new expanding circle? In Jim Cummins & Chris Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (Vol. 1, pp. 361-374). Springer.
15. Dörnyei, Zoltán., & Taguchi, Tatsuya. 2010. Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing (2nd ed.). Routledge.
16. Galloway, Nicola., & Rose, Heath. 2015. Introducing Global Englishes. Routledge.
17. Gao, Xuesong., & Zhang, Lawrance Jun. 2020. Teacher agency and identity in language education: A narrative inquiry from a complexity perspective. System, 91, 102251.
18. Gardner, Robert C., & MacIntyre, Peter D. 1993. A student's contributions to second-language learning. Part II: Affective variables. Language Teaching, 26(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800000045
19. Gordani, Yahya., Arabani, Arash Saharkhiz, & Moghtader, Iman Javadzadeh. 2021. Communication anxiety and self-confidence among learners of English as a foreign language: The role of learning cooperatively. Global Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 11(4), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.18844/gjflt.v11i4.6114
20. Guo, Yi. 2024. The effect of foreign language enjoyment on students' foreign language learning. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media, 70(1), 184–189. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/70/20241021
21. Hambleton, Ronald K., Merenda, Peter F., & Spielberger, Charles D. (Eds.). 2005. Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
22. Horwitz, Elaine K., Horwitz, Michael B., & Cope, Joann. 1986. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x
23. Hu, Li-tze, & Bentler, Peter M. 1999. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
24. International Test Commission. 2017. The ITC guidelines for translating and adapting tests (2nd ed.). Author.
25. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2000. The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford University Press.
26. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2006. Current perspectives on teaching World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 157-181.
27. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2007. English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and Identity. Oxford University Press.
28. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2015. Global Englishes: A resource book for students (3rd ed.). Routledge.
29. Kachru, Braj B. 1985. Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11-30). Cambridge University Press.
30. Kirkpatrick, A. 2007. World Englishes: Implications for international communication and English language teaching. Cambridge University Press.
31. Kline, Rex B. 2016. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
32. Liu, Guangxiang Leon. 2024. Revisiting and measuring foreign language confidence from a World Englishes perspective: Scale development and validation. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 291–307. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12618
33. MacIntyre, Peter D., Clément, Richard., Dörnyei, Zoltán, & Noels, Kimberley A. 1998. Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545-562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x
34. McKay, Sandra L. 2002. Teaching English as an international language: Rethinking goals and approaches. Oxford University Press.
35. Norton, Bonny. 2000. Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Longman.
36. Oktaria, Putrika. 2023. The correlation between self-confidence and English speaking achievement of the secondary school students. Jurnal Pendidikan Dasar Dan Menengah, 1(2), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.69743/edumedia.v1i2.18
37. Ortega, Lourdes. 2019. SLA and the study of equitable multilingualism. The Modern Language Journal, 103(1), 23-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12525
38. Park, Joseph Sung-Yul., & Wee, Lionel. 2012. Markets of English: Linguistic capital and language policy in a globalizing world. Routledge.
39. Rajagopalan, Kanavillil. 2004. The concept of 'World English' and its implications for ELT. ELT Journal, 58(2), 111-117. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/58.2.111
40. Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2011. Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford University Press.
41. Sifakis, Nicos C. 2014. ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: A transformative perspective for ESOL teacher education. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 3(2), 317-335. https://doi.org/10.1515/jelf-2014-0019
42. Teimouri, Yasser., Goetze, Julia, & Plonsky, Luke. 2019. Second language anxiety and achievement: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41(2), 363-387. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000311
43. Tupas, Ruanni. 2015. Inequalities of multilingualism: Challenges to mother tongue-based multilingual education. Language and Education, 29(2), 112-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2014.977295
44. Van de Vijver, Fons J. R., & Leung, Kwok. 1997. Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Sage Publications.
45. Van de Vijver, Fons J. R., & Leung, Kwok. 2021. Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. In D. Matsumoto & F. J. R.
46. Van de Vijver (Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (2nd ed., pp. 30–63). Cambridge University Press.
47. Vandenberg, Robert J., & Lance, Charles E. 2000. A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4-70.
48. Zhang, Qinghe., Song, Yan, & Zhao, Chen. 2023. Foreign language enjoyment and willingness to communicate: The mediating role of communication confidence and motivation. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4539192
49. Zhang, Xian. 2019. Foreign language anxiety and foreign language performance: A meta-analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 103(4), 763-781. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12590
50. Zhou, Tianyu, & Kuok, Ucheng. 2024. The emotional impact of L1 learning confidence on L2 learning: A case of a study of translation majors in Guangxi Universities. International Journal of English Language Studies, 6(4), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijels.2024.6.4.4