Mezopotamya’da Tarımsal Üretiminin Devamlılığının Sağlanması İçin Krallığın Finanse Edilmesi: Vergilendirme

Öz

İnsanoğlunun yerleşik yaşama geçmesinin akabinde insanlık tarihinde yaşanan en büyük gelişme yazını icadı ile olmuş ve tarihi dönemler başlamıştır. Tarımsal üretimin başlaması sonucunda kurulan köy toplulukları zaman içerisinde büyüyerek kent boyutundaki toplumsal yaşam alanlarına dönüşmüştür. Kentlerin kuruldukları coğrafyaların sağladığı imkanlar dahilinde nüfus artmış ve karmaşık toplumsal ilişkilere dayalı bir sosyal yapı meydana gelmiştir. Bu sosyal yapının içerisinde farklı meslek grupları, uzmanlaşma ve toplumsal sınıflaşmalar ortaya çıkmıştır. Mezopotamya’da Fırat ve Dicle Nehirlerinin suladığı büyük düzlük araziler, kentlerin ve daha sonrasında da krallıkların kurulduğu bölgeler haline gelmiştir. Bu krallıkların sınırları içerisinde yaşayan insanlar, krala olan bağlılıklarına göre değer görmüş ve yaşamlarını da bu bağlılığın karşılığını alarak sürdürebilmişlerdir. Bu ilişki bütününde, yönetilenler tarım ve hayvan yetiştiriciliğinden elde ettiklerinin bir kısmını krallığa öderken krallar da askeri gücünü ve siyasi otoritesini tarımsal üretimin devamlılığı için kullanmışlardır. Bu çalışma, Mezopotamya’da ortaya çıkan ilk kent krallıklarından Pers istilasına kadar uzanan süreci kapsamaktadır. Ayrıca bu çalışma Fırat ve Dicle nehirlerinin tarımsal üretimin şekillenmesindeki etkisi ile yetişen ürünlerin, krallıklar tarafından vergi yoluyla nasıl ve niçin alındığına dair açıklamalar yapmayı amaçlamıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Vergilendirme
• Bala
• Gun-Mada
• Miksu.

Financing the Kingdom for the Sustainability of Agricultural Production in Mesopotamia: Taxation

Öz

Following the transition of mankind to settled life, the greatest development in human history was with the invention of writing and historical periods began. The village communities established as a result of the start of agricultural production have grown over time and turned into urban social living spaces. Within the opportunities provided by the geographies where cities were established, the population increased and a social structure based on complex social relations was formed. Within this social structure, different occupational groups, specialization and social classifications have emerged. In Mesopotamia, the large plain lands irrigated by the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers became the regions where cities and then kingdoms were founded. The people living within the borders of these kingdoms were valued according to their loyalty to the king and were able to live their lives by receiving the rewards of this devotion. In this whole relationship, the ruled pay to the kingdom a part of what they get from agriculture and animal husbandry, while the king while the kings used their military power and political authority for the continuity of agricultural production. This study includes the process from the first urban kingdoms to the Persian invasion in Mesopotamia. In addition, this study, it is aimed to make explanations about how and why the products grown by the kingdoms were taken by the kingdoms with the effect of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers on the shaping of agricultural production.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Taxation
• Bala
• Gun-Mada
• Miksu.

Kaynakça

1. Adams, R. M., (1966). The Evoulation of Urban Society Early Mesopotamia ve Prehispanic Mexico. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
2. Algaze, G. (2008). Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization (The Evolution of an Urban Landscape). Chicago ve London: The University of Chicago Press.
3. Ascalone, E. (2005). Mesopotamia (Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians). Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press.
4. Bar-Yosef, O., ve Belfer-Cohen, A. (1989). The Origins of Sedentism and Farming Communities in the Levant. Journal of Word Prehistory, Vol. 3, No. 4, 447-498.
5. Belwood, P., (2005). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell Publishing.,
6. Bertman, S., (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press.
7. Bodley, J. H., (2011). Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Global System, Lanham, New York, Toronto, Plymouth: Altamira Press.
8. Boıvın, O., (2016). Agricultural Economy and Taxation in the Sealand I Kingdom, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 68, ss. 45-65.

9. Byrd, B. F., (1994). From Early Humans to Farmers and Herders Recent Progress on Key Transitions. Journal of Archaeological Research, 2, (3), ss. 221-253.
10. Chadwick, R., (2005). Firs Civilization: Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, London: Equinox Publishing.
11. Charvat, P., (2013). Mesopotamia Before History. London and Newyork: Routledge.
12. Childe, V. G., (1950). The Urban Revolution. The Town Planning Review, 21 (1), ss.3 17.
13. Diakonoff, I. M., (1991). “General Outline of the First Period of the History of the Ancient World and the Problem of the Ways of Development”, Early Antiquity, Vol. Ed.: I. M. Diakonoff, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, ss. 27- 66.
14. Dolukhanov, P., (1998). Eski Ortadoğu'da Çevre ve Etnik Yapı. (S. Aydın, Çev.) İstanbul: İmge Kitapevi Yayınları.
15. Ellis, M. D., (1976). Agriculture and the State in Ancient Mesopotamia, Philadelphia, Occasional Publications of the Babylonian.
16. Ellis, M. D., (1974). Taxation in Ancient Mesopotamia: The History of the Term Miksu, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 26, No. 4, ss. 211-250.
17. Englund, R. K., (2012). “Equıvalency Values And The Command Economy Of The Ur Iıı Perıod In Mesopotamia”, The Constructıon Of Value In The Ancıent World, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology University of California, Los Angeles, ss. 427- 458.
18. Flannert, K. V., (1973). The Origins of Agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 1973, Vol. 2, 271-310.
19. Foster, B., 1981. “A New Look at the Sumerian Temple State” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 24 / 3, ss. 225-241.
20. Garfinke, S., (2010). “Merchants and State Formation in Early Mesopotamia”, Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, Ed.: Melville, S. C. ve Slotsky, A. L. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
21. Grayson, A. K., (1999). “Assyrian civilization”, The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B. C., Ed.: J.
22. Grayson, A. K., (2008). “Assyrian Civilization”, The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C., Vol. III. Ed.: Boardman, I. E. Edwards, S. Hammond, N. G. L., Sollberger E., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23. Head, T., (2015). Ancient Mesopotamia. Minnesota: Abdo Publishing.
24. Huot, J. L., Thalmann, J. P., ve Valbelle, D. (2000). Kentlerin Doğuşu. (A. B. Girgin, Çev.) Ankara: İmge Kitapevi.
25. Jane A. H. Philip J. A. J. Morales., (2017). “Comparing Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia: Cosmos, Politics and Landscape”, Experiencing Power—Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Ed.: Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, Antonio J. Morales, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology by the University of Pennsylvania Press, Philedelphia, ss. 3-32.
26. Khurt, A., (2017). Eski Çağ'da Yakındoğu (Yaklaşık M.Ö. 3000-330) (D. Şendil, Çev.) İstanbul: Türkiye ĠĢ Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
27. Kınal, F. (1983). Eski Mezopotamya Tarihi, Ankara: A. Ü. Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Yayınları.
28. Köroğlu, K., (2016). Eski Mezopotamya Tarihi (Başlangıcından Perslere Kadar) İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
29. Kraus, F. R., (1990). “The Role of Temples from the Third Dynasty of Ur to the First Dynasty of Babylon” Monograps on the Ancient Near East. Undena Publications. 2 /4, ss. 1-20.
30. Kuiper, K. (2011). Mesopotamia: The World’s Earliest Civilization, New York: Britannica Education Publishing.
31. Larson, G., ve Fuller, D. 2014. The Evolution of Animal. The Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2014. 45:115–36, ss.115-136.
32. Leick, G., (2002). Mesopotamia The Invention of the City, London, Penguin Books.
33. Liverani, M., (2005). Historical Overwiew:. Snell, D. içinde, A Copanion to the Ancient Near East, Blackwell Publishing.
34. Liverani, M., (2013). The Ancient Near East History, Society and Economy. New York: Routledge.
35. Maisels, C., K. (1999). Uygarlığın Doğuşu (Yakındoğu’da Avcılık ve Toplayıcılıktan Tarıma Kentlere ve Devlete Geçiş) (A. Şenel, Çev.) Ankara: İmge Kitapevi.
36. Makkay, J., (1983). The Origins of the “Temple-Economy” as seen in the Light of Prehistoric Evidence, Volume 45 / Issue 01, 1-6.
37. Mcintosh, J., R. (2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives, Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado: ABC Clio.
38. Mellaart, J., (1975). The Neolithic of the Near East. London: Thames and Hudson.
39. Mieroop, M. V., (2018). Eski Yakındoğu Tarihi MÖ 3000-323. (S. Gül, Çev.) İstanbul: Homer Kitapevi.
40. Miller, N. F. (2006). The Origins of Plant Cultivation in the Near East. C. C. Watson içinde, The Origins Of Agriculture: An İnternational Perspective.
41. Mountjoy, S. (2005). Rivers in the World History: The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Philadelphia: Chealsea House Publishers.
42. Nemet-Nejat, K. R., (1998). Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia, Westport: Greenwood Press.
43. Nissen, H. J., (2004). Ana Hatlarıyla Mezopotamya (Yakındoğu Arkeolojisinin İlk Dönemleri) (Z. İlkgelen, Çev.) İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
44. Oppenheim, A. L., (1977). Ancient Mesopotamia, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
45. Pollock, S., 2017. Antik Mezopotamya: Var Olmamış Cennet. (Burak E., Çev.), İstanbul: Sümer Yayıncılık.
46. Postgate, N. (1992). Early Mesopotamia Society and Economy at the Dawn of History. Londra ve New York: Routledge.
47. Reade, J., (2000). Mesopotomia, London: British Museum Press.
48. Redman, C. L., (1978). The Rise of Civilization From Early Farmers to Urban Society in Ancient Near East. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
49. Reece, K., (2005). The Mesopotamians Conquerors of the Middle East, Florida: Rourke Publishing.
50. Renger, J., (1994). On Economic Structures in Ancient Mesopotamia: Part One, Orientalia, Nova Serıes, Vol. 63, No. 3, 157-208.
51. Richard, L., ve Sterba, A., (1976). The Organization and Management of the Temple Corporations in Ancient Mesopotamia. The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, 16-26.
52. Richardson, S., (2005). “Building Larsa: Labor, Scale and Scope-of-Economy in the Ancient Mesopotamia”, Labor in the Ancient World Ed.: Steinkeller, P. Hudson M, Saxony: A Colloquium held at Hirschbach, ss. 137-237
53. Roaf, M., (1996). İletişim Atlaslı Büyük Uygarlıklar Ansiklopedisi: Mezopoyamya ve Eski Yakındoğu, C.: 9, Çev.: Zülal Kılıç, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul, 238s.
54. Rzoska, J., (1980). Euphrates and Tigris Mesopotamian Ecology and Destinty. London: Dr. W. Junk Publishers.
55. Sallaberger, W, (2017). “The Management of the Royal Treasure: Palace Archives and Palatial Economy in the Ancient Near East”, Experiencing Power—Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Ed.: Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, Antonio J. Morales, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology by the University of Pennsylvania Press, Philedelphia, ss. 219-256.
56. Scott, J. C. (2019). İlk Devletlerin Derin Tarihi: Tahıla Karşı. (A. E. Pilgir, Çev.) İstanbul: Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları.
57. Sharlach, T, 2004. Provincial Taxation and the Ur III State, Leiden: Brill.
58. Steinkeller, P. (1991). “The Administrative and Economic Organization of the Ur III State: The Core and the Periphery”, The Organızatıon Of Power Aspects of bureaucracy In The Ancıent Near East Ed.: Gibson, M. ve Bıggs, R. D., Chicago- Illinois, The University of Chicago Press.
59. Wallenfels, R. ve Sasson, J. M., (2000). The Ancient Near East. New York, C.1, Detroit, San Francisco, London, Boston, Woodbridge: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
60. Wallenfels, R. ve Sasson, J. M., (2000). The Ancient Near East. New York, C.4, Detroit, San Francisco, London, Boston, Woodbridge: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
61. Wallenfels, R. ve Sasson, J., M. (2000). The Ancient Near East. New York, C.3, Detroit, San Francisco, London, Boston, Woodbridge: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
62. William, H. ve Stıebeg, JR., (2008). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture, New York San Francisco Boston London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Madrid Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town Hong Kong Montreal, Pearson Longman.
63. Wright, G. A., (1971). Origins of Food Production in Southwestern Asia: A Survey of Ideas. Current Anthropology Volume I2, Nos. 4-5, ss. 131-133.
64. Yıldırım, E. (2017). Eskiçağ Mezopotamya'sında Liderler Krallar Kahramanlar. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
65. Yoffee, N., (2004). Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States and Civilizations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
66. Zeder, M. A., (2011). The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East. Current Anthropology, Vol. 52, No. S4, The Origins of Agriculture: New Data, New Ideas., 221-235.