Reconfiguring Authoritarianism: Post-Crisis Regime Consolidation in Algeria during the 1990s

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 2, 266 - 291, 30.09.2022

M. Tahir Kılavuz

https://doi.org/10.14782/marmarasbd.1123399

Öz

The Algerian regime was contested by a democratization attempt and a civil war in the 1990s. However,
it has succeeded to become a very robust regime since then. Even with the challenges that emerged in
the following decades such as the Arab Spring and the Hirak movement, the Algerian regime found
ways to absorb protests and survive. Following the tumultuous decade of the 1990s, how was it possible for the Algerian elites to acquire such a robust authoritarian regime? How did the regime manage
to escape from the political crisis of the decade with a reconfiguration and how did these changes
affect its dynamics of survival? Answering these questions, this article examines the transformation
of the authoritarian regime in Algeria by carrying out a case analysis and supports its claims with
interviews conducted during fieldwork. According to that, the regime had used a rather limited toolset
for its survival prior to the 1990s. However, while the regime reconfigured some of its old tools, it
introduced several new ones during the 1990s. The regime’s diversified toolset following this period
can be categorized under three groups: The first is the old tools such as natural resources rents, the
second is the reconfigured tools like a strengthened coercive apparatus and a redefined legitimacy, and
the third is the new tools such as starting to use political liberalization effectively and introducing the
multiparty system to control the challenges from the opposition. Thanks to this reconfiguration, the
Algerian regime transformed into a robust and modern electoral authoritarian regime in the 1990s. As
a result, the regime became more successful in responding to challenges in the following decades. With
these, based on the case of Algeria, this article aims at two things: explaining the reconfiguration of the
Algerian regime and making connections with the broader literature on comparative authoritarianism
by examining an important example of how authoritarianism transforms in recent decades.

Anahtar Kelimeler

authoritarian survival, electoral authoritarianism, Algeria, political regimes, opposition

Destekleyen Kurum

Kellogg Institute for International Studies, University of Notre Dame

Otoriter Rejimi Yeniden Yapılandırmak: 1990’larda Cezayir’de Kriz Sonrası Rejim Konsolidasyonu

Öz

Cezayir rejimi 1990’larda bir demokratikleşme çabası ve bir iç savaşla sarsılmıştı. Ancak takip eden
süreçte rejim oldukça dirençli bir hale gelmeyi başardı. Her ne kadar 2000’lerden sonra başta Arap
Baharı ve Hirak isimli toplum hareketleri olsa da Cezayir rejimi protestoları yatıştırmanın ve hayatta
kalmanın yollarını bulabildi. İstikrarsız geçen 1990’ların ardından Cezayir rejim elitleri nasıl oldu da
bu kadar dirençli bir otoriter rejim geliştirebildiler? Rejim 1990’larda içine düştüğü siyasal krizden nasıl
bir dönüşümle çıkmayı başardı ve bu dönüşüm rejimim hayatta kalma dinamiklerini nasıl etkiledi?
Bu sorulara yanıt verirken bu makale Cezayir’de otoriter rejimin dönüşümünü vaka analizi yoluyla
incelemekte ve bulgularını saha araştırması sırasında yapılmış mülakatlarla desteklemektedir. Buna göre
rejim 1990’lar öncesinde hayatta kalmak için kullandığı araçlar daha sınırlı olmuştur. Ancak 1990’larda
rejim bir yandan bazı eski araçlarını yeniden yapılandırırken bazı yeni araçları kullanıma sokarak
hayatta kalma araçlarını çeşitlendirmiştir. Bu çerçevede rejimin 1990’larla beraber hayatta kalmak için
farklı ihtiyaçları daha iyi karşılayabilen araçları üç grupta ele alınabilir. Birincisi doğal kaynak gelirleri
gibi eskiden beri kullanılan araçlar, ikincisi baskı aygıtlarını güçlendirilmesi ve meşruiyetin yeniden
tanımlaması yoluyla yenilenen ve geliştirilen araçlar, üçüncüsü ise siyasal liberalleşmeyi aktif bir şekilde
kullanmaya başlamak ve muhalefetten gelebilecek tehditleri kontrol edebilmek için çok partili seçim
sistemi yerleştirmekle geliştirilen yeni araçlardır. İşte bu yeniden yapılanma sayesinde Cezayir rejimi
1990’larla beraber dirençli ve modern bir seçimli otoriter rejime dönüşmüştür. Bunun sonucu olarak
da rejim 2000’lerle beraber yükselen tehditlere daha başarılı bir şekilde yanıt verebilecek hale gelmiştir.
Cezayir vakası üzerinden ilerleyen bu makale bir yandan ülkedeki rejimin dönüşümünü gösterirken bir
yandan da yakın dönemde dünyanın dört bir yanında otoriter rejimlerin yaşadığı dönüşümlere de bir
örnek sunarak literatürle bağlantılar kurmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

otoriter hayatta kalma, seçimli otoriterlik, Cezayir, siyasal rejimler, muhalefet

Kaynakça

• Addi, L. (1998). Algeria’s Army, Algeria’s Agony. Foreign Affairs, 77(4), 44-53.
• Aït-Aoudia, M. (2015). L’expérience démocratique en Algérie ( 1988-1992 ): Apprentissages politiques et changement de régime. Paris: Les Presses de Sciences Po.
• Algérie: Les partis islamistes à la recherche de l’unité en vue des législatives. (2017, 15 Ocak). France 24. http://www.france24.com/fr/20170115-algerie-partis-islamistes-recherche-unite-elections- legislatives adresinden erişildi.
• Ayachi, H. (2014). Les années Chadli 1978-1992. Alger: Socrate Editions.
• Bellin, E. (2004). The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Exceptionalism in Comparative Perspective. Comparative Politics, 36(2), 139-157.
• Boubekeur, A. (2008). Les partis islamistes algériens et la démocratie: Vers une professionnalisation politique ? L’Année du Maghreb, (IV), 219-238.
• Brumberg, D. (2002). The Trap of Liberalized Autocracy. Journal of Democracy, 13(4), 56-68. Bueno de Mesquita, B., Smith, A., Siverson, R. M. ve Morrow, J. D. (2004). The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.
• Burgat, F. ve Dowell, W. (1997). The Islamic Movement in North Africa (Second Edition.). Austin: University of Texas Press.
• Carothers, T. (2002). The End of the Transition Paradigm. Journal of Democracy, 13(1), 5-21.
• Cavatorta, F. (2002). The Failed Liberalisation of Algeria and the International Context: A Legacy of Stable Authoritarianism. The Journal of North African Studies, 7(4), 23-43.
• Charef, A. (1994). Algérie: Le Grand Dérapage. La Tour d’Aigues: Editions de l’Aube.
• Cook, S. A. (2007). Ruling But Not Governing: The Military and Political Development in Egypt, Algeria, and Turkey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Teorell, J., Altman, D., ... Ziblatt, D. (2019). V-Dem Codebook v9. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project.
• Diamond, L. (2002). Thinking About Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 21-35.
• Edgell, A. B., Mechkova, V., Altman, D., Bernhard, M. ve Lindberg, S. I. (2017). When and where do elections matter? A global test of the democratization by elections hypothesis, 1900–2010. Democratization, 25(3), 422-444.
• Elguettaa, B. (2021, 17 Mart). The Military’s Political Role in the New Algeria—Politics of Military Authoritarianism in North Africa. Carnegie Middle East Center. https://carnegie-mec. org/2021/03/17/military-s-political-role-in-new-algeria-pub-84076 adresinden erişildi.
• Entelis, J. P. (2011, 7 Eylül). Algeria, revolutionary in name only. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy. com/2011/09/07/algeria-revolutionary-in-name-only/ adresinden erişildi.
• Entelis, J. P. (2016, 19 Ocak). What does an amended constitution really change about Algeria? Washington
• Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/01/19/what-does-an- amended-constitution-really-change-about-algeria/ adresinden erişildi.
• Gandhi, J. ve Lust-Okar, E. (2009). Elections Under Authoritarianism. Annual Review of Political Science, 12(1), 403-422.
• Gandhi, J. ve Przeworski, A. (2007). Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats. Comparative Political Studies, 40(11), 1279-1301.
• Geddes, B. (1999). What Do We Know About Democratization after Twenty Years? Annual Review of Political Science, 2(1), 115-144.
• Ghanem, D. (2019). The Shifting Foundations of Political Islam in Algeria. Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
• Ghanem, D. (2020, 8 Nisan). The Disease of Repression. Carnegie Middle East Center. https://carnegie-mec. org/diwan/81499 adresinden erişildi.
• Hadjadj, D. (2007). Algeria: A Future Hijacked by Corruption. Mediterranean Politics, 12(2), 263-277. Hidouci, G. (1995). Algérie: La libération inachevée. Paris: Éd. la Découverte.
• Howard, M. M. ve Roessler, P. (2006). Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 365-381.
• International Crisis Group. (2003). Algeria: Unrest and Impasse in Kabylia (ICG Middle East/North Africa
• Report No: No: 15). Cairo / Brussels. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north- africa/algeria/algeria-unrest-and-impasse-kabylia-0 adresinden erişildi.
• Joffé, G. (2021). Algeria: Be careful what you wish for. The Journal of North African Studies, 26(5), 819-826. Doi: 10.1080/13629.387.2021.1950771
• Kailitz, S. (2013). Classifying Political Regimes Revisited: Legitimation and Durability. Democratization, 20(1), 39-60.
• Kapil, A. (1994). Algeria. F. Tachau (Ed.), Political Parties of the Middle East and North Africa içinde. Westport, Conn: Greenwood.
• Keenan, J. (2012, 15 Mayıs). Algeria’s election was a fraud. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/ opinion/2012/05/201.251.482813133513.html adresinden erişildi.
• Kılavuz, M. T. (2022). Algeria versus the Uprisings: The Algerian Regime and Opposition Dynamics during the 2010s. Ş. Aktürk (Ed.), Arab Spring: Past, Present, and Future içinde . Istanbul: TRT World Research Centre.
• Kilavuz, M. T. (2017). Reconfiguring the Algerian Regime: On the Stability and Robustness of Authoritarianism in Algeria. Alsharq Forum. https://research.sharqforum.org/2017/05/02/
• reconfiguring-the-algerian-regime-on-the-stability-and-robustness-of-authoritarianism-in- algeria/ adresinden erişildi.
• Layachi, A. (2004). Political Liberalisation and the Islamist Movement in Algeria. The Journal of North African Studies, 9(2), 46-67.
• Le président Bouteflika annonce une révision de la Constitution. (2011, 15 Nisan). France 24. http://www. france24.com/fr/20110415-algerie-discours-television-nation-president-abdelaziz-bouteflika- decisions-revoltes-monde-arabe adresinden erişildi.
• Levitsky, S. ve Way, L. A. (2010). Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Lindberg, S. I. (2006). Democracy and Elections in Africa. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Lindberg, S. I. (2009). The Power of Elections Revisited. S. I. Lindberg (Ed.), Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition içinde. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Linz, J. J. ve Stepan, A. (1996). Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Maddy-Weitzman, B. (2012). Arabization and Its Discontents: The Rise of the Amazigh Movement in North Africa. The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 3(2), 109-135. Doi: 10.1080/21520.844.2012.738549
• Magaloni, B. (2006). Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
• McAllister, E. (2013). Immunity to the Arab Spring? Fear, Fatigue, and Fragmentation in Algeria. New Middle Eastern Studies, 3(0).
• Mebtoul, A. (2017, 27 Ocak). Algérie – Planche à billets et marche vers le FMI: Une crise de gouvernance.
• Maghreb Emergent. http://maghrebemergent.com/contributions/opinions/68709-algerie-la- corruption-menace-la-securite-nationale-contribution.html adresinden erişildi.
• Mortimer, R. (1991). Islam and Multiparty Politics in Algeria. Middle East Journal, 45(4), 575-593.
• Mortimer, R. (2006). State and Army in Algeria: The ‘Bouteflika effect’. The Journal of North African Studies, 11(2), 155-171.
• Nezzar, K. (2000). Mémoires du général. Alger: Chihab.
• Norris, P. ve Grömping, M. (2019). Perceptions of Electoral Integrity, (PEI-7.0). Harvard Dataverse. Doi:10.7910/DVN/PDYRWL
• O’Donnell, G. ve Schmitter, P. C. (1986). Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Orus-Boudjema, S. (2021, 20 Ağustos). Algérie: Qui sont le MAK et Rachad, les mouvements accusés d’être derrière les incendies – Jeune Afrique. Jeune Afrique. https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1220291/
• politique/algerie-qui-sont-le-mak-et-rachad-les-mouvements-accuses-detre-derriere-les- incendies/ adresinden erişildi.
• Parks, R. (2012). Algeria and the Arab Uprisings. C. M. Henry ve J. Ji-Hyang (Ed.), The Arab Spring: Will It Lead to Democratic Transitions? içinde (ss. 101-126). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Przeworski, A., Alvarez, M., Cheibub, J. A. ve Limongi, F. (2000). Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Quandt, W. B. (1998). Between Ballots and Bullets: Algeria’s Transition from Authoritarianism. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
• Quandt, W. B. (2002). Algeria’s Uneasy Peace. Journal of Democracy, 13(4), 15-23.
• Rachidi, I. (2021, 29 Temmuz). Repression in Algeria: Could It End The Hirak Movement? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/85060 adresinden erişildi.
• Roberts, H. (1990). A New Face for the FLN. Africa Report, 35(1), 41-43.
• Roberts, H. (2007). Demilitarizing Algeria. Carnegie Endowment. https://carnegieendowment. org/2007/05/08/demilitarizing-algeria-pub-19153 adresinden erişildi.
• Sakthivel, V. (2017). Political Islam in Post-Conflict Algeria. Hudson Institute. http://www.hudson.org/ research/13934-political-islam-in-post-conflict-algeria adresinden erişildi.
• Schedler, A. (2002). The Menu of Manipulation: Elections without Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 36-50.
• Schedler, A. (2006). The Logic of Electoral Authoritarianism. (A. Schedler, Ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.
• Svolik, M. W. (2012). The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. Cambridge University Press.
• Tahi, M. S. (1992). The Arduous Democratisation Process in Algeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30(3), 397-419.
• Teorell, J. ve Hadenius, A. (2009). Elections as Levers of Democratization: A Global Inquiry. S. I. Lindberg (Ed.), Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition içinde . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Tlemçani, R. (2008). Algeria Under Bouteflika: Civil Strife and National Reconciliation. Carnegie Middle
• East Center. http://carnegie-mec.org/2008/03/10/algeria-under-bouteflika-civil-strife-and- national-reconciliation-pub-19976 adresinden erişildi.
• Volpi, F. (2003). Islam and Democracy: The Failure of Dialogue in Algeria. London ; Sterling, VA: Pluto Press.
• Volpi, F. (2004). Pseudo-democracy in the Muslim world. Third World Quarterly, 25(6), 1061-1078.
• Volpi, F. (2013). Algeria versus the Arab Spring. Journal of Democracy, 24(3), 104-115. Doi: 10.1353/ jod.2013.0040
• Volpi, F. (2017). Revolution and Authoritarianism in North Africa. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
• Volpi, F. (2020). Algeria: When Elections Hurt Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 31(2), 152-165.
• Werenfels, I. (2007). Managing Instability in Algeria. London: Routledge.
• Willis, M. (1998). Algeria’s other Islamists: Abdallah Djaballah and the Ennahda movement. The Journal of North African Studies, 3(3), 46-70.
• Willis, M. (1999). The Islamist Challenge in Algeria: A Political History. New York: NYU Press.
• World Bank. (2021). World Development Indicators (WDI). http://databank.worldbank.org adresinden erişildi.
• Yaylacı, İ. ve Amasha, M. (2020). Islamist Movements and Parties in the Algerian Uprising. Political Islam Movements in the Second Wave of Arab Uprisings. İstanbul: Al Sharq Strategic Research.
• Yefsah, A. (1991). La question du pouvoir en Algérie. Alger: En. A.P.
• Yefsah, A. (1992). L’armée et le pouvoir en Algérie de 1962 à 1992. Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée, 65(1), 77-95.
• Zoubir, Y. H. (1993). The Painful Transition from Authoritarianism in Algeria. Arab Studies Quarterly, 15(3), 83-110.
• Zoubir, Y. H. (1998). The Algerian political crisis: Origins and prospects for the future of democracy. The Journal of North African Studies, 3(1), 74-100.