Deaf Identity Development: An Analysis through Glickman’s Deaf Identity Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory

Öz

This article aims to analyze the development of deaf identity through the integration of Glickman’s deaf identity theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory. It examines the influence of multiple factors, including parental hearing status, modes of communication, educational settings, and societal attitudes, in shaping deaf identity. The study emphasizes the pervasive impact of social structures, particularly the dominance of medical perspective on deafness, which affect individual experiences, institutional policies, and broader sociocultural norms. By drawing on these theoretical frameworks, this study examines the dynamic and continuously evolving process of deaf identity, shaped by interactions within the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Furthermore, it explores the extent to which early-life experiences within various ecological systems contribute to long term identity development and self-perception. The prevailing medical model of deafness, which is reinforced across ecological layers, perpetuates a cycle that constrains identity development by influencing individual experiences at all levels, from family to education, and fosters cultural attitudes that hinder inclusive identity formation. In conclusion, the point of disruption for this cycle lies in the formulation of equitable policies that would facilitate the shift from the dominant medical model to a cultural model, the promotion of bilingual acquisition, and the implementation of inclusive, deaf culturally informed, and human rights-based regulations across all ecological systems.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• deaf identity
• deaf culture
• deaf community
• Bronfenbrenner
• hearing parents

Sağır Kimlik Gelişimi: Glickman’ın Sağır Kimlik Teorisi ve Bronfenbrenner’ın Biyoekolojik Kuramı Üzerinden Bir İnceleme

Öz

Bu çalışma, sağır kimlik gelişimini Glickman’ın sağır kimlik teorisi ve Bronfenbrenner’ın biyoekolojik sistemler kuramı çerçevesinde incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda, işiten ebeveynlerin işitme durumu, iletişim türü, eğitim ortamları ve toplumsal yapılar gibi sağır kimliğini şekillendiren çeşitli etmenlerin etkisine odaklanılmaktadır. Çalışma, özellikle sağır bireyleri çevreleyen sosyal yapılarda medikal bakış açısının baskın olmasının; bireysel deneyimler, toplumsal politikalar ve daha geniş sosyokültürel normlar üzerindeki etkisini vurgulamaktadır. Bu teoriler doğrultusunda, sağır kimliğinin dinamik ve sürekli değişen bir yapı olduğu ve mikrosistem, mezosistem, egzosistem, makrosistem ve kronosistem düzeylerindeki deneyim ve etkileşimler yoluyla biçimlendiği ele alınmaktadır. Mikrosistemde erken yaşta edinilen deneyimlerin ve dış sistemlerde bunları pekiştiren yaşantıların, bireyin sağır kimliği ve öz algısı üzerinde uzun vadeli bir etkisi olduğu görülmektedir. Sağır olmayı çoğunlukla medikal bir sorun olarak gören baskın anlayış, aileden eğitime kadar her düzeyde bireysel deneyimleri etkileyerek kimlik gelişimini kısıtlayan bir döngüyü sürdürmektedir. Sonuç olarak, bu döngünün kırılma noktası, makro sistemdeki baskın medikal modelin kültürel modele geçişini etkileyecek olan eşit ve adil politikaların düzenlenmesi, çift dil ediniminin desteklenmesi ve tüm ekolojik sistemlerde kapsayıcı, sağır kültür temelli bilgilendirici ve insan haklarına dayalı düzenlemelerin gerçekleştirilmesiyle mümkün olacağı anlaşılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• sağır kimlik
• sağır kültür
• sağır toplum
• Bronfenbrenner
• işiten ebeveynler

Kaynakça

1. Andersson, S., & Lyngbäck, L.A. (2022). ‘But I feel more at home in the deaf world even if I can talk’: D/deaf adolescents’ experiences of transitioning from a mainstream school to a deaf school in Sweden. deafness & Education International, 24(3), 249-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/14643154.2021.1970086
2. Arık, E. (2013). Introduction: Previous and current reseaarch on Turkish Sign Language (TSL). In E. Arık (Ed.), Current directions in Turkish Sign Language research (pp. 1-17). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
3. Arık, E. (2016) Geçmişten geleceğe Türk işaret dili araştırmaları. In.E. Arık (Ed.), Ellerle Konuşmak: Türk İşaret Dili Araştırmaları (pp. 7-22). İstanbul: Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları.
4. Atherton, M. (2009). A feeling as much as a place: leisure, deaf clubs and the British deaf community. Leisure Studies, 28(4), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360902951690
5. Bain, L., Scott, S., & Steinberg, A. G. (2004). Socialization experiences and coping strategies of adults raised using spoken language. Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 9(1), 120-128. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360902951690
6. Batten, G., Oakes, P. M., & Alexander, T. (2014). Factors associated with social interactions between deaf children and their hearing peers: A systematic literature review. Journal Of deaf Studies And deaf Education, 19(3), 285-302. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/ent052
7. Bauman, H. D. L. (2004). Audism: Exploring the metaphysics of oppression. Journal Of deaf Studies And deaf Education, 9(2), 239-246. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enh025
8. Beckner, B. N., & Helme, D. W. (2018). deaf or hearing: A hard of hearing individual's navigation between two worlds. American Annals of the deaf, 163(3), 394–412. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2018.0025

9. Bone, T. A. (2019). No one is listening: members of the deaf community share their depression narratives. Social Work in Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332985.2018.1498045
10. Breivik, J. K. (2005). Vulnerable but strong: deaf people challenge established understandings of deafness. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33(66), 18-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034950510033327
11. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
12. Byatt, T. J., Duncan, J., Dally, K., & de Beuzeville, L. (2021). Evolving identities of adolescents who are deaf or hard of hearing. American Annals of the deaf, 166(1), 5-30.
13. Canadian Association of the deaf (2015). deaf culture vs. Medicalization. Retrieved from http://cad.ca/issues-positions/deaf-culture-vs.-medicalization.
14. Carter, M. J. (2015). deaf identity centrality: Measurement, influences, and outcomes. Identity, 15(2), 146-172.
15. Carter, M. J., & Mireles, D. C. (2016). Exploring the relationship between deaf identity verification processes and self-esteem. Identity, 16(2), 102-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2016.1159963
16. Cawthon, S. W., & Garberoglio, C. L. (2017). Shifting the dialog, shifting the culture: Pathways to successful postsecondary outcomes for deaf individuals. Gallaudet University Press.
17. Chapman, M. (2021). Representation and resistance: A qualitative study of narratives of deaf cultural identity. Culture & Psychology, 27(3), 374-391. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354067X21993794
18. Chapman, M., & Dammeyer, J. (2017). The significance of deaf identity for psychological well-being. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 22(2), 187-194. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enw078
19. Chen, Q. (2021). Social deprivation and language development: The gap between language abilities for children attending schools from the most to least deprived areas in the UK. [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. University of Oxford.
20. Clark, M. D., Baker, S., & Simms, L. (2019). A culture of assessment: A bioecological systems approach for early and continuous assessment of deaf infants and children. Psychology in the Schools, 56(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22313
21. Corker, M. (1996). deaf transitions: Images and origins of deaf families, deaf communities and deaf identities. London, England: Jessica Kingsley.
22. Cue, K. R. (2020). Hegemonic deaf and hearing cultures of the United States: A deaf ecological systems perspective(Doctoral dissertation, Lamar University). ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
23. Cue, K. R., Pudans-Smith, K. K., Wolsey, J. L. A., Wright, S. J., & Clark, M. D. (2019). The odyssey of deaf epistemology. American Annals of the deaf, 164(3), 395-422.
24. Daisy, B. J. (2008). deaf people in a hearing world: A qualitative study of cultural identity issues [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. University of New Hampshire.
25. Dammeyer, J., Crowe, K., Marschark, M., & Rosica, M. (2019). Work and employment characteristics of deaf and hard-of-hearing adults. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 24(4), 386-395.
26. Day, L. A. (2010). The effects of health professionals' advice on the development of deaf children (Doctoral dissertation, Gallaudet University). ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
27. De Clerck, G. A. (2007). Meeting global deaf peers, visiting ideal deaf places: deaf ways of education leading to empowerment, an exploratory case study. American Annals of the deaf, 152(1), 5-19.
28. De Clerck, G. A. M., & Golos, D. (2020). Minimizing the impact of language deprivation and limited access to role models on deaf identity development in children and young adults: Global perspectives for positive change. In I. W. Leigh & C. A. O'Brien (Eds.), deaf identities: Exploring new frontiers (pp. 193–225). Oxford University Press.
29. De Meulder, M. (2016). The influence of deaf people’s dual category status on sign language planning: the British Sign Language (Scotland) Act (2015). Current Issues in Language Planning, 18(2), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2016.1248139
30. Doğan, C. (2021). Televizyon haber bültenlerindeki işaret dili çeviri hizmetine yönelik sağır topluluğun tutum ve beklentileri. Çeviribilim ve Uygulamaları Dergisi, 2021(30), 18-60. https://doi.org/10.37599/ceviri.899155
31. du Feu, M., & Chovaz, C. (2014). Mental health and deafness. Oxford University Press.
32. Easterbrooks, M. A., Bartlett, J. D., Beeghly, M., & Thompson, R. A. (2012). Social and emotional development in infancy. In I. B. Weiner (Ed.) Handbook of psychology: Developmental psychology (pp.91-120). John wiley & Sons.
33. Foss, K. A. (2014). Constructing hearing loss or “deaf gain?” voice, agency, and identity in television's representations of d/deafness. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 31(5), 426-447.
34. Gill, M. & Schlund-Vials, C.J. (2014). Disability, Human Rights and the Limits of Humanitarianism. Ashgate.
35. Glickman, N. (1996). The Development of Culturally deaf Identities. In N. Glickman, & M. Harvey (Eds.). Culturally affirmative psychotherapy with deaf persons (pp. 115-153). Routledge.
36. Glickman, N. S., & Carey, J. C. (1993). Measuring deaf cultural identities: A preliminary investigation. Rehabilitation Psychology, 38(4), 275. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080304
37. Glickman, N. S., & Hall, W. C. (2019). Language deprivation and deaf mental health. Routledge.
38. Green, A. U., Udem, C. J., Anekwe, N. U., Onunkwor, B. N., Okafor, S. A., Ugochukwu, C. E., ... & Ezekoma, N. M. (2025). Bilingualism and Biculturalism: The Impact of Sign Language and Spoken Language Acquisition on deaf Identity Formation. Journal of Theoretical and Empirical Studies in Education, 9(2), 502-515.
39. Gulati, S. (2019). Language deprivation syndrome. In N. Glickman (Ed.), Language Deprivation and deaf Mental Health (pp. 24-53). Taylor & Francis Group.
40. Hall, W. C. (2017). What you don’t know can hurt you: The risk of language deprivation by impairing sign language development in deaf children. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 21(5), 961-965.
41. Hall, M. L., Hall, W. C., & Caselli, N. K. (2019). deaf children need language, not (just) speech. First Language, 39(4), 367-395.
42. Hauser, P. C., O'Hearn, A., McKee, M., Steider, A., & Thew, D. (2010). deaf epistemology: deafhood and deafness. American Annals of the deaf, 154(5), 486–496. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.0.0120
43. Holcomb, T. K. (2013). Introduction to American deaf culture. Oxford University Press.
44. Humphries, T., Kushalnagar, P., Mathur, G., Napoli, D. J., Padden, C., Rathmann, C., & Smith, S. (2016). Avoiding linguistic neglect of deaf children. Social Service Review, 90(4), 589-619.
45. İlkbaşaran, D. (2013). Communicative practices in Turkish Sign Language. In E. Arık (Ed.), Current direction in Turkish Sign Language (pp. 19-53). Camridge Scholars Publishing.
46. İlkbaşaran, D., & Taşçı, S. S. (2012). Ideology and language in the early republic: A history of deaf education in Turkey. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Language and Communication: Research Trends and Challenges, Erzurum: Mega Press.
47. Keating, E., & Mirus, G. (2003). Examining interactions across language modalities: deaf children and hearing peers at school. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 34(2), 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1525/aeq.2003.34.2.115
48. Kelly, R. R., & Gaustad, M. G. (2007). deaf college students' mathematical skills relative to morphological knowledge, reading level, and language proficiency. Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 12(1), 25-37. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enl012
49. Kemaloğlu, Y. K. (2014). Konuşamayan işitme engellilerin (sağırların) tarihi. Journal of Ear Nose Throat and Head Neck Surgery, 22(1).
50. Kemaloğlu, Y. K., & Kemaloğlu, P. Y. (2012). The history of sign language and deaf education in Turkey. The Turkish Journal of Ear Nose and Throat, 22(2), 65-76.
51. Knoors, H. (2016). Foundations for language development in deaf children and the consequences for communication choices. In M. Marschark & P. E. Spencer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of deaf studies in language, (pp. 19-31). Oxford University Press.
52. Komesaroff, L. (2004). Allegations of unlawful discrimination in education: Parents taking their fight for Auslan to the courts. Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 9(2), 210-218. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enh022
53. Kubuş, O., İlkbaşaran, D. ve Gilchrist, S. (2016). Türkiye’de işaret dili planlaması ve Türk İşaret Dilinin yasal durumu. In E. Arık (Ed.), Geçmişten geleceğe Türk İşaret Dili araştırmaları, (ss. 23-50). Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları
54. Ladd, P. (2003). Understanding deaf culture: In search of deafhood. Multilingual Matters.
55. Ladd, P. (2005). deafhood: A concept stressing possibilities, not deficits. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33(66), 12-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034950510033318
56. Lambez, T., Nagar, M., Shoshani, A., & Nakash, O. (2020). The association between deaf identity and emotional distress among adolescents. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 25(3), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enz051
57. Marschark, M., Zettler, I., & Dammeyer, J. (2017). Social dominance orientation, language orientation, and deaf identity. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 22(3), 269-277. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enx018
58. Leigh, I. W. (2009). A lens on deaf identities. Oxford University Press.
59. Leigh I. W. (2020). deaf identities: A maturing framework. In I. W. Leigh & C. A. O’Brien (Eds.), deaf identities: Exploring new frontiers, (pp. 1-26). Oxford University Press.
60. Leigh, I. W., Andrews, J. F. & Harris, R. L. (2018). deaf culture: Exploring deaf communities in the United States. Plural Publishing.
61. Leigh, I. W., Andrews, J. F., Miller, C. A., & Wolsey, J. L. A. (2022). deaf people and society: Psychological, sociological, and educational perspectives. Routledge.
62. Ma, Y., Xue, W., Liu, Q., & Xu, Y. (2022). Discrimination and deaf adolescents’ subjective well-being: The role of deaf identity. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 27(4), 399-407. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enac013
63. Marschark, M. (2007). Raising and educating a deaf child: A comprehensive guide to the choices, controversies, and decisions faced by parents and educators. Oxford University Press.
64. Marschark, M., Zettler, I., & Dammeyer, J. (2017). Social dominance orientation, language orientation, and deaf identity. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 22(3), 269-277. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enx018
65. Mauldin, L. (2016). Made to hear: Cochlear implants and raising deaf children. University of Minnesota Press. Mauldin, L. ve Fannon, T. (2020). They told me my name: Developing a deaf identity. Symbolic Interaction, 44(2), 339-366. https://doi.org/10.1002/symb.482
66. Meek, D. R. (2020). Dinner table syndrome: A phenomenological study of deaf individuals' experiences with inaccessible communication. The Qualitative Report, 25(6), 1676-1694.
67. Moores, D. F. (2010). Partners in progress: The 21st International Congress on Education of the deaf and the repudiation of the 1880 Congress of Milan. American Annals of the deaf, 155(3), 309-310. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2010.0016
68. Mousley, V. L., & Chaudoir, S. R. (2018). deaf stigma: Links between stigma and well-being among deaf emerging adults. The Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 23(4), 341-350. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/eny018
69. National Institute on deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). (2016). Quick Statistics About Hearing. Retrieved from https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/ quick-statistics-hearing
70. Oliva, G., & Lytle, L. (2014). Turning the TSLe: Making life better for deaf and hard of hearing school children. Gallaudet University Press.
71. Padden, C. A., & Humphries, T. L. (2005). Inside deaf culture. Harvard University Press.
72. Pfister, A. E. (2017). Forbidden signs: deafness and language socialization in Mexico City. Ethos, 45(1), 139-161. https://doi.org/10.1111/etho.12151
73. Pudans-Smith, K. K., Cue, K. R., Wolsey, J. A., & Clark, M. D. (2019). To deaf or not to deaf: That is the Question. Psychology, 10, 2091-2114. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2019.1015135
74. Punch, R., Hyde, M., & Power, D. (2007). Career and workplace experiences of Australian university graduates who are deaf or hard of hearing. Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 12(4), 504-517. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enm011
75. Riggs, S. A. (2010). Childhood emotional abuse and the attachment system across the life cycle: What theory and research tell us. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770903475968
76. Rogers, S., Muir, K., & Evenson, C. R. (2003). Signs of resilience: Assets that support deaf adults’ success in bridging the deaf and hearing worlds. American Annals of the deaf, 148(3), 222-232.
77. Sacks, O. (2009). Seeing voices: A journey into the world of the deaf. Pan Macmillan.
78. Schlesinger, H. S. (2000). A developmental model applied to problems of deafness. Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 5(4), 349-361. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/5.4.349
79. Sciarrino, N.A., Hernandez, T. E. ve Davidtz, J. (2018). Understanding child neglect: Biopsychosocial perspectives. Springer.
80. Siegrist, H. (2019). deaf people and social trauma: Effects on interpersonal relationships and resiliency [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation]. Alliant International University.
81. Skelton, T., & Valentine, G. (2003). ‘It feels like being deaf is normal’: an exploration into the complexities of defining D/deafness and young D/deaf people's identities. Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe Canadien, 47(4), 451-466. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0008-3658.2003.00035.x
82. Snoddon, K. (2020). The social and epistemological violence of inclusive education for deaf learners. Canadian Journal of Disability Studies, 9(5), 185-213. https://doi.org/10.15353/cjds.v9i5.695
83. Terry, J. (2023). Enablers and barriers for hearing parents with deaf children: Experiences of parents and workers in Wales, UK. Health Expectations, 26(6), 2666-2683.
84. Tsach, N. & Most, T. (2016). The inclusion of deaf and hard- of- hearing students in mainstream classrooms: Classroom participation and its relationship to communication, academic, and social performance. In M. Marschark, V. Lampropoulou & E. K. Skordilis (Eds.), Diversity in deaf education (pp. 355-381). Oxford University Press.
85. Terzi, A. K., & Uyanık, Y. (2023). İşitme engellilerin istihdam ve kariyerlerini engelleyen faktörlerin çeşitli yönlerden incelenmesi. Journal of European Education, 13(1), 60-86.
86. Uchida, W., Marsh, H. W., & Hashimoto, K. (2015). Predictors and correlates of self-esteem in deaf athletes. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 21-30.
87. Valentine, G., & Skelton, T. (2003). Living on the edge: the marginalisation and ‘resistance’of D/deaf youth. Environment and Planning A, 35(2), 301-321. https://doi.org/10.1068/a3572
88. Vissers, C.T.W.M & Hermans, D. (2019). Social emotional problems in deaf and hard of hearing children from an executive and theory of mind perspective. In H. Knoors ve M. Marschark (Eds.) Evidence based practices in deaf education (pp.455-476). Oxford University Press.
89. Young, A. (2006). The experience of deafness-psychosocial effects. In V.E. Newton ve P. J. Valley (Eds), Infection and Hearing Impairment, (pp. 279-286). John Wiley and Sons.
90. Young A. & Hunt R. (2011) Research with D/deaf People. NIHR School for Social Care Research.
91. Werfel, K. L., Okosi, E., Grey, B., Swindale, C., & Lund, E. (2024). Understanding Barriers to Timely Enrollment of Early Intervention Services for Children who are deaf and Hard of Hearing. Journal of Early Hearing Detection and Intervention, 9(1), 7-16.
92. Wolsey, J. L. A., Clark, M. D., van der Mark, L., & Suggs, C. (2017). Life scripts and life stories of oral deaf individuals. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 29(1), 77–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882‐016‐9487‐z
93. Xie, Y. H., Potměšil, M., & Peters, B. (2014). Children who are deaf or hard of hearing in inclusive educational settings: A literature review on interactions with peers. Journal of deaf Studies and deaf Education, 19(4), 423-437. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enu017