Dini Populizm, Damgalama, İnsandışılaştırma ve Nefret Suçlarının Muhtemel Bağlantılılıkları ve Rusya’daki Müslümanlar Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme

Öz

Popülist telkinler çok uzun süredir halkları etkilemekte, küresel ve küresel-yerel politikaları şekillendirmektedir. Fakat günümüzde, popülizmin etkileri artan biçimde yerel politikalar ve uluslararası ilişkilerde önemli roller üstlenmektedir. Bu araştırma dini popülizm, damgalama, insandışılaştırma, nefret suçları ve insan hakları ihlallerine odaklanmaktadır. Bu araştırma sonucunda söz konusu fenomenler arasında muhtemel bağlantılılıklar olduğu önerilmektedir. Bu muhtemel bağlantılılık, söz konusu fenomenlerin önemini arttırmaktadır; çünkü en temel ihlaller dahi vahim insan hakları ihlallerine sebep olabilecektir. Dini popülizm öğretilerinin toplumsal arındırma veya insanlığa karşı işlenen suçlar gibi vahim sonuçlara yol açabileceği hatırlatılmıştır. Ayrıca, Rusya’da yaşayan Müslümanların hakları ve onların içinde yaşadıkları güncel şartlar hakkındaki çeşitli argümanlar incelenmiştir. Son olarak bilgi ve algı operasyonlarının önemi ve ilgili stratejiler vurgulanmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Dini Popülizm
• Damgalama
• Nefret Suçları
• Medya Yanıltmaları
• İslamofobi

The Possible Interconnectedness of Religious Populism, Stigmatization, Dehumanization and Hate Crimes and an Evaluation on Muslims in Russia

Abstract

Populist indoctrinations have been influencing peoples and shaping global and glocal policies for a very long time. But nowadays, the effects of populism increasingly play crucial roles in domestic policies and international relations. This research focuses on religious populism, stigmatization, dehumanization, hate crimes and violations of human rights. As a result of this research, it is suggested that there is possible interconnectedness between these phenomena. This possible interconnectedness increases the importance of these phenomena, since even the most basic violations of rights may result in creation of grave human right violations. It is reminded that religious populism indoctrinations may even lead to grave consequences like societal sterilization or crimes against humanity. Besides, the rights of Muslims living in Russia and some arguments about the contemporary conditions that they live in are examined. Finally, the importance of information and perception operations and related strategies emphasized.

Keywords

• Religious Populism
• Stigmatization
• Hate Crimes
• Media Deceptions
• Islamophobia

Kaynakça

1. Akhmetova, E. (2018). Managing Muslim Minorities in Russia. Dirasat, King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh.
2. Aleyev, Y. (2018). Putin Calls for a ‘Revival’ of Islamic Education in Russia. The Moscow Times, Available at: https://themoscowtimes.com/news/putin-calls-for-revival-of-islamic-education-in-russia-60276 05.10.2018.
3. Alston, P. (2017). “Dialogue on Human Rights in the Populist Era”, Journal of Human Rights Practice, 9, 2017, 1–15, doi: 10.1093/jhuman/hux007.
4. Apahideanu, I. (2014). Religious populism: the coup de grâce to secularization theories. South-East European Journal of Political Science, Vol. II, No:1,2, Available at: http://www.academia.edu /6622081/Religious_populism_the_coup_de_gr%C3%A2ce_to_secularization_theories 17.10.2018.
5. Arato, A. (2013). Political Theology and Populism. Social Research, 80(1), Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=2352920&download=yes 29.10.18.
6. Arnold, V. (2017). Russia Religious Freedom Survey, Forum 18 News Service, Available at: http://www.forum18.org/archive.php? article_id= 2246 02.10.2018.
7. Arzt, D.E. (1998). Historical Heritage or Ethno-National Threat? Proselytizing and the Muslim Umma of Russia. 12 Emory International Law Review, p. 436.
8. Batunskij, M.A. (2003). Rossija i islam, [Russia and Islam]. Pt.I. Moscow: Progress-Traditsija.

9. Baumeister, R. and Leary M. (1997). Writing Narrative Reviews. Review of General Psychology, 1(3), 311-320, DOI: 10.1037//1089-2680.1.3.311.
10. BBC News (2018). Muslim Women Call for End to Abuse on Public Transport. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-tyne-45855266 27.10.18.
11. Black, E. (2003). War against the weak: Eugenics and America’s campaign to create a master race. New York, NY: Four Walls Eight Windows.
12. Bonikowski, B. (2016). Three Lessons of Contemporary Populism in Europe and the United States. Brown Journal of World Affairs, 23(1), Available at: https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/bonikowski/files/bonikowski_-_three_lessons_of_contemporary_populism_in_the_united_states_and_europe.pdf 29.10.18.
13. Bozoki, A. and Adam, Z. (2016). State and Faith: Right-wing Populism and Nationalized Religion in Hungary. Intersections, EEJSP, 2(1): 98-122, doi: 10.17356/ieejsp.v2i1.143 http://intersections.tk.mta.hu
14. Burrel, M. and Barsalou, j. (2015). Neuroscience and Peacebuilding: Reframing How We Think About Conflict and Prejudice. Beyond Conflict & El-Hibri Foundation & Allience for Peacebuilding, Available at: https://beyondconflictint.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/ Neuroscience-and-Peacebuilding_v1.pdf 16.10.18.
15. Carillo, Martin, M. (2018). Populism and Religion in the Theory of Logics as a Unit of Explanation. Revista Cientifica Investigar, 2(1), Available at: http://www.mqrinvestigar.com/V2_1_ARTI_1.pdf 10.10.18.
16. Christodoulos, A. (no date). Interview, Athens: Chrysopigi
17. Christodoulos, A. (2000). Speech of his Beautitude the Archbishop of Athens and All Greece Christodoulos in the rally of Thessaloniki – 14 June 2000. in Holy Synod of the Church of Greece, The Church and Identity Cards, Athens: Publications Branch of the Communication and Educational Service of the Church of Greece.
18. Council of Muftis of Russia (2018) Social Doctrine of Russian Muslims. Available at: https://www.muslim.ru/actual/13636/ 02.10.2018.
19. Davenport, C. (2015). How Social Movements Die: Repression and Demobilization of the Republic of New Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.
20. Fanon, F. (1961). Les damnés de la terre. Paris: François Maspero.
21. Fanon, F. (1959). L’An cinq, de la révolution Algérienne. Paris: François Maspero.
22. Fırıncı, Y. (2018). The Expansion of Post-Secular Influence by Christian Dnominations Such as Christian Zionists. Journal of Analytic Divinity, 2(3).
23. Fırıncı, Y. (2017). Notes From Central Europe: Media, Elites And Politicians Have Been Fueling Xenophobia. Diplomatic Observer, 118.
24. Gidron, N. and Bonikowski, B. (2013). Varieties of Populism: Literature Review and Research Agenda. Harvard University, Weatherhead Center For Internatıonal Affairs, Working Paper Series, 13-0004, Available at: https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/gidron_bonikowski_ populismlitreview_2013.pdf 10.10.18.
25. Goble, P. (2012). Russia’s Muslims. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Available at: https://www.csce.gov/sites/ helsinkicommission.house.gov/files/Russia%27s%20Muslims.PDF 04.10.2018.
26. Hanna, F.J. Talley, W.B. & Mary H. Guindon (2000). The Power of Perception: Toward a Model of Cultural Oppression and Liberation. American Counseling Association, Available at: https://www.dhss.delaware.gov/dsamh/files/perception1192.pdf 15.10.18.
27. Hate Crime Statistics Act (2010). U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureu of Investigation, Available at: https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2010/resources/hate-crime2010-hate-crime-statistics-act.pdf 19.10.18.
28. Hawkins, Kirk A. (2009). Is Chavez Populist?: Measuring Populist Discourse in Comparative Perspective. Comparative Political Studies, 42.
29. Hawkins, Kirk A. (2010). Venezuela’s Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30. Hedenskog, Holmquist and Norberg, (2018). Security in the Caucasus, Russian Policy and Military Posture. Swedish Ministry of Defence, Available at: https://www.foi.se/report-search/pdf?fileName=D%3A%5CReportSearch%5CFiles%5Cf3af1b94-064b-47f7-a31d-782db00dc2b5.pdf 05.10.2018.
31. Hilton, B. T. (2011). Frantz Fanon and colonialism: A psychology of oppression. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/259694009_Frantz_Fanon_and_colonialism_A_psychology_of_oppression?enrichId=rgreq-6e6ce668a18e9c041c870b5194bf9e96-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI1OTY5NDAwOTtBUzoxMDQwNTcwNTgzNjU0NDZAMTQwMTgyMDU0NDkzMA%3D%3D&el=1_x_3&_esc=publicationCoverPdf 21.10.18.
32. Hunter, S. (2012). Russia’s Muslims. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Available at: https://www.csce.gov /sites/helsinkicommission.house.gov/files/Russia%27s%20Muslims.PDF 04.10.2018.
33. Inglehart, R. F. and Norris, P. (2016). Trump, Brexit, and the rise of Populism:Economic have-nots and cultural backlash. Harvard Kennedy School, Available at: https://research.hks.harvard.edu/publications/getFile.aspx?Id=1401 20.10.18.
34. Katz, M.N. (2010). Russia’s Greater Middle East Policy: Securing Economic Interests, Courting Islam. Ifri Russia / NIS Center, Russie.Nei.Visions, 49, Paris, Available at: https://www.ifri.org /sites/default/files/atoms/files/ifrirussiamiddleeastkatzengapril2010.pdf 05.10.2018.
35. Kazin, M. (1995). The Populist Persuasion: An American History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
36. Kerboua, S. (2017). American Neoconservatism and Its Neo-Orientalist Constructions Of Islam And The Arab Muslim World. People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Mentouri University of Constantine 1, Available at:http://archives.umc.edu.dz/bitstream/handle/123456789/136204/KER1458.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 19.10.18.
37. Khan, S. (2018). German state orders all government buildings to display a Christian cross. The Independent, Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germany-bavaria-christian-crosses-government-building-religion-a8320481.html 29.10.18.
38. Kunst, R. J.; Tajamal, H.; Sam, L. D.; Ulleberg, P. (2012). Coping with Islamophobia: The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities’ identity formation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, pp. 518– 532 Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/ pdf/148779017.pdf 18.10.18.
39. Laclau, Ernesto (2005). On Populist Reason. London: Verso.
40. Lenta. Ru (2015) Кремле не поняли идею муфтия о присоединении Израиля и Сирии к России (The Kremlin did not understand the idea of the Muftī on Israel and Syria adhesion to Russia) (November 25, 2015). Retrieved from Lanta.ru, https://lenta.ru/news/2015/11/25/umor/.
41. Mafeza, F. (2016). Preventing Genocide By Fighting Against Hate Speech. International Journal of Advanced Research, 4(3), pp. 117-132, Available at: http://www.journalijar.com/uploads/756_IJAR-8937.pdf 20.10.18.
42. Mukhetdinov, D.V. (2016). Strategies for the Development of Russian Muslim Society in Islam in the 21st Century: A Program for Renewal (Selected papers).
43. The Religious Board of Muslims of Russian Federation, Moscow Islamic Institute, Moscow: «Medina» PH, Available at: http://www.idmedina.ru/pdf/web/viewer.html? file=/pdf/content/Islam_v_XXI_veke_programma_obnovleniya_eng.pdf#83 16.10.18.
44. Myers, S. L. (2005). Growth of Islam in Russia Brings Soviet Response. New York Times, Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/22/ world/europe/growth-of-islam-in-russia-brings-soviet-response.html 16.10.18.
45. Northup, S. (1968). Twelve years a slave. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. (Original work published 1853)
46. Nugent, E.R. (2018). The Psychology of Repression and Polarization in Authoritarian Regimes. Middle East Initiative, Belfer Center Harvard Kennedy School, Available at: https://www.belfercenter.org /sites/default/files/files/publication/2018-01-MEI_RFWP_Nugent.pdf 15.10.18.
47. Oboler, A. (2016). The Normalisation of Islamophobia through Social Media: Facebook. in Awan, I (ed.), Islamophobia in Cyberspace, Available at: http://oboler.com/normalisation_of_Islamophobia_ through_social_media_Facebook.pdf 29.10.18.
48. Peltola, L. (2018). Rape and Sexual Violence Used as a Weapon of War and Genocide.
49. Claremont Colleges Student Scholarship Senior Theses, Available at: https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com.tr/&httpsredir=1&article=2921&context=cmc_theses 19.10.18.
50. Prazauskas, A. (2005). Russia and Islam. Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania, InterMarium, 8(3), Available at: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ece/research/intermarium/vol8no3/russia-and-islam.pdf.
51. Rocha, Z. D. L., Morello, T., Commerford, T., Wilk, B. (1992). Wake Up. Rage Against The Machine, Los Angeles, U.S.A. Availble at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wauzrPn0cfg 24.12.18.
52. Russia Mufties Council, (2018). Chinese and Russian Religious Leaders Meet in Bishkek. Available at : https://www.muslim.ru/en /articles/138/21890/ 28.09.2018.
53. Schmitt, C. (1985). Political Theology. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
54. Sorokin, S. A. (2017). Islamophobia in Russia: National Report 2017. in: Enes Bayraklı and Farid Hafez, European Islamophobia Report, Istanbul, SETA Available at:https://www.islamophobiaeurope. com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/EIR_2017.pdf 04.10.2018.
55. SOVA (2018). Misuse of Anti-Extremism. SOVA Center for Information and Analysis, Available at: https://www.sova-center.ru/en/misuse/ 19.10.18.
56. Spiritual Board of Muslims in Russia, (2018a). Конференция «Духовный Шелковый путь» завершила цикл. Работа продолжается: страны и народы объединяют усилия в противостоянии вызовам современности. The Spiritual Silk Road Conference Has Completed A Cycle. Work Continues: Countries And Nations Join Forces İn Confronting The Challenges Of Our Time. Available at: http://www.dumrf.ru/common/event/14296 , 05.10.2018.
57. Spiritual Board of Muslims in Russia, (2018b). Журнал «Ислам в современном мире» успешно прошел переаттестацию в ВАК РФ. The Journal «Islam In The Modern World Successfully Passed The Recertification In The Higher Attestation Commission Of The Russian Federation. Available at: http://www.dumrf.ru/common/ event/14352 05.10.2018.
58. Spiritual Board of Muslims in Russia, (2018c). В Московском исламском институте начались занятия. In the Moscow Islamic Institute began classes. Available at: http://www.dumrf.ru/common/ event/14237 05.10.2018.
59. Spiritual Board of Muslims in Russia, (2018d). Король Иордании Абдалла II: «Сильный голос российского умеренного ислама– надежда для мировой уммы». King Abdullah II of Jordan: The strong voice of Russian moderate Islam is hope for the world ummah. Available at: http://www.dumrf.ru/common/event/1350505.10.2018.
60. Spiritual Board of Muslims in Russia, (2018e). Сегодня в Казани состоялось пленарное заседание IX Всероссийского форума татарских религиозных деятелей «Национальная самобытность и религия». A plenary session of the 9th AllRussian Forum of Tatar Religious Figures ‘National Identity and Religion’ was held in Kazan today. Available at: http://www.dumrf.ru/common/ event/14123 05.10.2018.
61. Stavrakakis, Y. (2002). Religion and Populism: Reflections on the ‘politicised’ discourse of the Greek Church. The Hellenic Observatory The European Institute, London School of Economics & Political Science, Available at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/5709/1/ StavrakakisPaper7.pdf 24.10.18.
62. Taggart, P. (2000). Populism. Open University Press, Buckingham.
63. Teslova, E. (2018). Muslim community in Russia ‘25 million’ strong. Anadolu Agency, Available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/muslim-community-in-russia-25-million-strong/1081608 02.10.2018.
64. Tharoor, I. (2015). The Christian zeal behind Russia’s war in Syria. The Washington Post, Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/ news/worldviews/wp/2015/10/01/the-christian-zeal-behind-russias-war-in-syria/?utm_term=.dae06ac33673 29.10.18.
65. The Conversation (2016). The ability to enforce mandatory migrant quotas is slipping out of the EU’s grasp. Available at: http://theconversation.com/the-ability-to-enforce-mandatory-migrant-quotas-is-slipping-out-of-the-eusgrasp-66623 , 16.10.18.
66. Timmermann, W. (2005). The relationship between hate propaganda and Incitement to Genocide: A new trend in International Law towards criminalization of Hate propaganda. Leiden Journal of International Law, 18, pp. 257-28.
67. Ulfkotte, U. (2014). Gekaufte Journalisten. Wie Politiker, Geheimdienste und Hochfinanz Deutschlands Massenmedien lenken. Rottenburg: Kopp Verlag.
68. UN (2015). Human Rights Committe, Concluding Observations on the Seventh Periodic Report of the Russian Federation, United Nations, Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/794962/files/ CCPR_C_RUS_CO_7-EN.pdf 02.10.2018.
69. UN (2018). French full-body weil ban, violated women’s freedom of religion: UN Human Rights Committee. UN News, Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/10/1023872 24.10.18.
70. Valente, G. (2018). Putin: Christianity is the root of Russian identity. La Stampa, Available at: https://www.lastampa.it/2018/08/01/ vaticaninsider/putin-christianity-is-the-root-of-russian-identity-9sweSbNz1pYkzepowyiRCI/pagina.html 30.10.18.
71. Weir, F. (2015). Is Russia’s intervention in Syria a ‘holy war’? Russian Orthodox Church: ‘yes’. Christian Science Monitor, Available at: https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2015/1123/Is-Russia-s-intervention-in-Syria-a-holywar-Russian-Orthodox-Church-yes 17.10.18.
72. Weitsman, P. A. (2008). The Politics of Identity and Sexual Violence: A Review of Bosnia and Rwanda. Human Rights Quarterly, 30(3), pp. 561-578.
73. Witte, D. (2017). The Precarity of Critique: Cultures of Mistrust and the Refusal of Justification. FILOZOFIJA I DRUŠTVO, 28(2), Available at: http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2017/0353-57381702231W.pdf 27.10.18.