The Shadow of the ‘Other’ on the ‘I’: Alienation

Yıl 2022, , 1 - 40, 30.06.2022

Ahmet Çorak

https://doi.org/10.51404/metazihin.1112425

Öz

In this study, intrapsychic manifestations of alienation are focused on. The alienation itself has been discussed, not the alienating conditions. The phenomenon of alienation has been examined through the concepts of “connection”, the “elements” that make up the connection, the “relationship” between these elements and the “disconnection” in these relationships, and as a consequence, through the emerging “separation” and “distance”, a form of “unrelatedness”. It is aimed to reach a psychic formulation of "individual alienation" through the examination to be made in terms of its relationship with the ego/self.

The potentiality of understanding alienation through the dynamic relationship between more than one self has been found worth investigating, since the real self is dysfunctional to varying degrees in alienation situations and false descriptions of self contain parallels with explanations of the alienation phenomena. Multiple identifications and imitation, which are “as if” substituted for “unrelatedness”, are seen as the source of compliance. The source of the symptoms of alienation such as the “sense of non-living”, “powerlessness”, “meaninglessness”, is the deanimation of the real self.

The term self-alienation actually expresses directly that there is a division between the selves. The ability of selves to stand apart from each other (dissociation) has an important explanatory power in cases of alienation but is seen as limited mostly to psychopathology. Activation of "parts of self belonging to the other" (or other selves) that has emerged through multiple identifications, imitation or the impositions of the environment, leads to the emergence of “ego-alien” perception-emotion-thinking-action patterns belonging to the other, that are staged in subjectivity stolen from the "I"; this is characterized as alienation.

In this study, the methods of Object Relations Theory were used from time to time in order to provide an approach to the subject of alienation through the relationship with the self. As a result, it has been seen that the synthesis of the Object Relations approach and social alienation theories would have an important potential of explanation.

Anahtar Kelimeler

alienation, anomie, false self, object relations, unrelatedness

‘Öteki’nin ‘Ben’ Üzerine Düşen Gölgesi: Yabancılaşma

Öz

Bu çalışmada, yabancılaşmanın intrapsişik yansımaları üzerine eğilinmiş, odak noktası olarak yabancılaştırıcı şartlar değil yabancılaşmanın kendisi ele alınmıştır. Yabancılaşma olgusu; “bağlantı”, bağlantıyı oluşturan “ögeler”, bu ögeler arasındaki “ilişki” ve bu ilişkilerdeki “kopma” ve sonuçta ortaya çıkan “ayrılma” (separation) ve “mesafe”, yani “ilişkisizlik” kavramları üzerinden incelenmiştir. Benlik/kendilik ile ilişkisi açısından yapılacak olan inceleme ile “bireysel yabancılaşma”nın psişik bir formülasyonuna ulaşmak amaçlanmaktadır.

Yabancılaşma durumlarında gerçek kendiliğin farklı derecelerde işlevsiz kalması ve sahte kendilik betimlemelerinin yabancılaşma olgusunu açıklayıcı paralellikler içermesi nedeniyle, birden fazla kendiliğin dinamik ilişkisi üzerinden yabancılaşmanın anlaşılmasının imkânı, araştırılmaya değer bulunmuştur. İlişkisizliğin yerine “mış gibi” ikame edilen çoklu özdeşimler ve taklit, uyumlanmanın (compliance), gerçek kendiliğin deanimasyonu ise yaşamama hissi, güçsüzlük, anlamsızlık gibi yabancılaşma belirtilerinin kaynağı olarak görülmektedir.

Kişinin kendisine yabancılaşması, kendilikler arası bir bölünme olduğunu doğrudan ifade etmektedir. Kendiliklerin birbirinden ayrı durma imkânı (disosiyasyon) ise, yabancılaşma olgularında önemli bir açıklayıcı güce sahiptir ancak genellikle psikopatoloji ile sınırlı tutulmaktadır. Çoklu özdeşimlerle, taklit veya çevrenin dayatmalarıyla ortaya çıkan “ötekine ait olan kendilik parçaları”nın etkinleşmesi, “ben”den çalınan ve öznellikte sahnelenen ötekine ait (ego-alien) duyu-duygu-düşünüş-eylem örüntülerinin belirmesine yol açar ve yabancılaşma olarak nitelenir.

Bu çalışmada, kendilik tasarımı ile ilişkilendirerek konuya yaklaşım sağlamak amacıyla, zaman zaman Nesne İlişkileri Kuramı’nın yöntemlerine başvurulmuştur. Sonuç olarak Nesne İlişkileri yaklaşımı ile sosyal yabancılaşma kuramlarının sentezinin önemli imkânlar barındırdığı görülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

yabancılaşma, anomi, sahte kendilik, nesne ilişkileri, ilişkisizlik

Kaynakça

• Akhtar, S. (2009). Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Londra: Karnac Books.
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). DSM V: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5. baskı). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
• Berne, E. (1957). “Ego States in Psychotherapy.” American Journal of Psychotherapy, 11(2), 293-309.
• Berne, E. (1961). Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy. New York: Grove Press.
• Binder, D. K., Schaller, K., ve Clusmann, H. (2007). “The Seminal Contributions of Johann-Christian Reil to Anatomy, Physiology, and Psychiatry.” Neurosurgery, 61(5): 1091-6.
• Bloom, H. (2009). “Volume Introduction.” H. Bloom ve B. Hobby (Der.), Alienation içinde (s. xv- xvi). New York: Infobase Publishing.
• Botella, C. ve Botella, S. (2005). The Work of Psychic Figurability: Mental States Without Representation. New York: Psychology Press.
• Brown, R. J. (2006). “Different Type of “Dissociation” Have Different Psychological Mechanisms.” Deprince, A. P. ve Cromer, L. D. (Der.), Exploring Dissociation: Definitions, Development and Cognitive Correlates içinde (s. 7-25). New York: Haworth Press.
• Bruce, S. ve Yearley, S. (2006). The SAGE Dictionary of Sociology. Londra: Sage.
• Brunschwig, J. ve Lloyd, G. E. R. (2000). Greek Thought: A Guide to Classical Knowledge. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Bychowski, G. (1967). “The Archaic Object and Alienation.” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 48: 384-393.
• Bunn, G. C. (2012). The Truth Machine: A Social History of the Lie Detector. Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Campbell, R. J. (2009). Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Colman, A. M. (2015). Oxford Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Conradie, E. M. (2006). Christianity and Ecological Theology. Stellenbosch: African Sun Media.
• Council of Europe, Parliamentary Assembly. (1974). Documents: Working Papers. Council of Europe Publishing.
• Çorak, A. (2017). “Benlik Durumları (Ego States) ve Çekirdek Benlik.” Dinlenen Ben, 5: 24-44.
• Çorak, A. (2018). “Disosiyatif Şizofreni Kavramının Tarihsel Kökenleri Ve Psikotik Süreklilik.” Türkiye Bütüncül Psikoterapi Dergisi, 1(2): 29-45.
• Daehnert, C. (1998). “The False Self as a Means of Disidentification: A Psychoanalytic Case Study.” Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 34: 251-271.
• Deflem, M. (2015). “Anomie: History of the Concept.” James D. Wright (Der.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences içinde (2. Baskı) (s. 718-721). Oxford: Elsevier.
• Deutsch, H. (1942). “Some Forms of Disturbance and Their Relation to Schizophrenia.” Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 11: 301-321.
• Douglas, J. (1872). English Etymology: A textbook of derivatives. Londra: Simpkin, Marshall and Co.
• Elkholy, S. N. (2012). The Philosophy of the Beats. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
• Ellenberger, H. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.
• Engberg-Pedersen, T. (1990). The Stoic Theory of Oikeiosis: Moral Development and Social Interaction in Early Stoic Philosophy. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
• Ermiş F. (2013 ). A History of Ottoman Economic Thought: Developments Before the Nineteenth Century. New York: Routledge.
• Evans, D. (2006). An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis. New York: Routledge.
• Federn, P. (1952). Ego Psychology and the Psychoses. New York: Basic Books.
• Fischer, J. ve Corcoran, K. J. (1994). Measures for Clinical Practice and Research: A Sourcebook. 2. Cilt: Adults (2. Baskı). New York: Simon and Schuster.
• Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E. ve Target, M. (2002). Affect Regulation, Mentalization and the Development of the Self. New York: Other Press.
• Frankl, V. E. (1978). The Unheard Cry For Meaning: Psychotherapy And Humanism. New York: Simon & Schuster.
• Frankl, V. E. (1985). Man's Search for Meaning. New York: Simon and Schuster.
• Fromm, E. (2017). The Sane Society. (Gözden geçirilmiş 2. Baskı). Oxon: Routledge.
• Fromm, E. (1965). Escape from Freedom. New York: Avon Books.
• Geyer, R. F. ve Schweitzer, D. R. (1976). “Introduction.” R. F. Geyer, D. R. Schweitzer (Der.), Theories of Alienation. Critical Perspectives in Philosophy and the Social Sciences içinde (s. xiv-xxv). Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Social Sciences Division.
• Gil-Or, O., Levi-Belz, Y. ve Turel, O. (2015). “The “Facebook-self”: Characteristics and Psychological Predictors of False Self-Presentation on Facebook.” Frontiers in Psychology, 6(99): 1-10.
• Glover, E. (2017). On the Early Development of Mind. New York: Routledge.
• Gooding-Williams, R. (2011). In the Shadow of Du Bois: Afro-Modern Political Thought in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Grimshaw, W. (1821). An Etymological Dictionary. Philadelphia: Lydia R. Bailey.
• Hart, O. V. ve Dorahy, M. J. (2009). “History of the Concept of Dissociation.” Dell, P. F. ve O'Neil, J. A. (Der.), Dissociation and the Dissociative Disorders: Dsm-V and Beyond içinde (s. 3-27). New York: Routledge.
• Heidegger, M. (1996). Being and Time: A Translation of Sein und Zeit. New York: SUNY Press.
• Heidegger, M. (2001). “Letter on Humanism.” McDonald, P.S. (Der.). The Existentialist Reader: An Anthology of Key Texts içinde (s. 236-269). New York: Routledge.
• Henderson, C. J. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies. New York: Facts On File.
• Hoch, A. (1911[1950]). “On Some Of The Mental Mechanisms In Dementia Praecox.” Meyer, A., Jelliffe, S.E. ve Hoch, A. (Der.), Dementia Praecox: A Monograph içinde (s. 53-71). Boston: Gorham Press.
• Honneth, A. (2014). “Forword.” Jaeggi, R., Alienation içinde (s. vii-x). New York: Columbia University Press.
• Hopkins, L. (2008). False Self: The Life of Masud Khan. Londra: Karnac Books.
• Hu, H., Real, E., Takamiya, K., Kang, M. G., Ledoux, J., Huganir, R.L. ve Malinow, R. (2007). “Emotion Enhances Learning via Norepinephrine Regulation of AMPA-Receptor Trafficking.” Cell, 131: 160–173.
• Inwood, B. ve Donini, P. (1999). “Stoic Ethics.” K. Algra, J. Barnes, J. Mansfeld, M. Schofield (Der.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy içinde (s. 675-739). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Jaeggi, R. (2014). Alienation. New York: Columbia University Press.
• James, W. (1908[1890]). The Principles of Psychology (Cilt I). New York: Henry Holt And Company.
• Johnson, S. (1836). Johnson’s Dictionary. Boston: C.J. Hendee.
• Jung, C. (2014). The Collected Works of C.G. Jung. Read H., Fordham M., Adler G. (Der.), Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Jung, J. (2015). Primary Narcissism, the Double, and Otherness. Research in Psychoanalysis, 19(1): 79-88.
• Kaufmann, W. (1970). “The Inevitability of Alienation.” Richard Schacht (Der.), Alienation içinde (s. xiii-lviii). New York: Doubleday & Company.
• Kernberg, O.F. (1995). Object Relations Theory and Clinical psychoanalysis. Lanham: Jason Aronson.
• Khan, M. (1975). “Introduction.” Winnicott, D. W., Through Paediatrics To Psycho-Analysis içinde (s. 11-48). New York: Basic Books.
• Klein, E. (1966). A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (Cilt I, A-K). Londra: Elsevier Publishing.
• Klein, J. (2016). “The Stoic Argument From Oikeiosis.” V. Caston (Der.), Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy içinde (Cilt 50) (s. 143-200). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kohut, H. (1971). The Analysis of the Self: A Systematic Approach to the Psychoanalytic Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
• Kohut, H. (1984). How Does Analysis Cure? Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• Lachs, J. (1976). “Mediation and Psychic Distance.” R. F. Geyer ve D. R. Schweitzer (Der.), Theories of Alienation. Critical Perspectives in Philosophy and the Social Sciences içinde (s. 151-168). Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Social Sciences Division.
• Laing, R. D. (1990). The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness. Londra: Penguin Books.
• Leopold, D. (2018). “Alienation.” Edward N. Zalta (Der.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy içinde. Alındığı URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/alienation
• Ludz, P.C. (1976). “Evolution of the Theory and Concept.” R. F. Geyer ve D. R. Schweitzer (Der.), Theories of Alienation. Critical Perspectives in Philosophy and the Social Sciences içinde (s. 3-40). Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Social Sciences Division.
• Marwah, S. (2008). “Anomie.” V. N. Parrillo (Der.), Encyclopedia of Social Problems içinde (1. cilt) (s. 45-47). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
• Masterson J. F. (1995). Disorders of the Self: New Therapeutic Horizons (The Masterson Approach). New York: Brunner-Mazel.
• Masterson J. F. (1977). “Treating the Borderline Patient in Psychotherapy.” Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 22: 109–116.
• Masterson J. F. (2000). The Personality Disorders: Anew Look at the Developmental Self and Object Relations Approach. Phoenix: Zeig Tucker.
• May, R., Yalom I. (1989). “Existential Psychotherapy.” R. J. Corsini ve D. Wedding (Der.), Current psychotherapies içinde (s. 363-404). Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publishers.
• McCarthy, L. (2018). “(Re)conceptualising the Roundaries Between Home and Homelessness: The Unheimlich.” Housing Studies, 33(6): 960-985.
• Monahan, P. A. (2009). “C. G. Jung: Freud’s Heir or Janet’s? The Influence upon Jung of Janet’s Dissociationism.” International Journal of Jungian Studies, 1(1): 33-49.
• Moskowitz, A. (2005). “Pierre Janet’s Influence on Bleuler’s Concept of Schizophrenia.” Janetian Studies, 2.
• Moskowitz, A., Heinimaa M. ve Hart, O. (2019). “Defining Psychosis, Trauma, and Dissociation: Historical and Contemporary Conceptions.” A. Moskowitz, M. J. Dorahy, I. Schäfer (Der.), Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation: Evolving Perspectives on Severe Psychopathology içinde (s. 9-30). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
• Murray, J. A. H. (1901). A New Dictionary On Historical Principles (5. Cilt). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Murray, J. A. H. (1888). A New Dictionary On Historical Principles (1. Cilt). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Noll, R. (2006). The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders (3. Baskı). New York: Facts on File.
• Partridge, E. (2006). Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. Londra: Routledge.
• Pembroke, S. G. (1971). “Oikeiôsis.” A. A. Long (Der.), Problems in Stoicism içinde (s. 114–149). Londra: Athlone Press of the University of London.
• Petrovic, G. (1967). “Alienation.” P. Edwards (Der.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy içinde (s. 76-81). New York: McMillan and Free Press.
• Preus, A. (2015). Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Philosophy (2. Baskı). Londra: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Reader’s Digest (1996). Oxford Complete Wordfinder: A Unique and Powerful Combination of Dictionary and Thesaurus. Readers Digest Association.
• Richter, D. S. (2011). Cosmopolis: Imagining Community in Late Classical Athens and the Early Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Samellas, A. (2010). Alienation: The Experience of the Eastern Mediterranean (50-600 A.D.). Bern: Peter Lang.
• Sayers, S. (2011). “The Concept of Alienation: Hegelian Themes in Modern Social Thought.” S. Sayers (Der.), Marx and Alienation: Essays on Hegelian Themes içinde (s. 1-13). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Schacht, R. (1970). Alienation. New York: Doubleday & Company.
• Schmitt, R. (2003). Alienation And Freedom. Cambridge: Westview Press.
• Schweitzer, D. (1981). “Alienation Theory and Research: Trends, Issues and Priorities.” International Social Science Journal, 33(3): 523–56.
• Scott, J. (2014). A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Seeman, M. (1959). “On the Meaning of Alienation.” American Sociological Review, 24(6): 783-791.
• Seeman, M. (1972). “Alienation and engagement.” A. Campbell ve P. E. Converse (Der.), The Human Meaning of Social Change içinde (s. 467-527). New York: Russell Sage.
• Shorter, E. (2005). A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Solomon, H. M. (2007). The Self In Transformation. Londra: Karnac Books.
• Srole, L. (1956). “Social Integration And Certain Corollaries: An Exploratory Study.” American Sociological Review, 21(6): 709-716.
• Stem, D. (1985). The Interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology. New York: Basic Books.
• Tasca, C., Rapetti, M., Carta, M. G. ve Fadda, B. (2012). “Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health.” Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 8: 110-119.
• Taylor, E. (1983). William James On Exceptional Mental States: The 1896 Lowell Lectures. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press.
• Teymoori, A., Bastian, B. ve Jetten, J. (2016). “Towards a Psychological Analysis of Anomie.” Political Psychology, 38: 1009–1023.
• Vaan, M. (2008). Etymological Dictionary Of Latin And The Other Italic Languages. Leiden: Brill.
• VandenBos, G. R. (2015). APA Dictionary of Psychology (2. Baskı). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Vogt, W. P. ve Johnson, R. B. (2015). The SAGE Dictionary of Statistics & Methodology: A Nontechnical Guide for the Social Sciences (5. Baskı). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
• Volkan, V. D. (1976). Primitive Internalized Object Relations: A Clinical Study of Schizophrenic, Borderline, and Narcissistic Patients. New York: International Universities Press.
• Washburn, M. (2003). Embodied Spirituality In A Sacred World. New York: State University of New York Press.
• Watkins, J. G. ve Watkins H. H. (1997). Ego States: Theory and Therapy. New York : W.W. Norton.
• White, F. ve Baylie, R. (1624). A Replie to Iesuit Fishers Answere to Certaine Questions Propounded by His Most Gratious Matie: King Iames. Londra: Adam Islip.
• Winnicott, D. W. (1965). The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. Londra: Hogarth Press.
• Winnicott, D. W. (1975). Through Paediatrics To Psycho-Analysis. New York: Basic Books.
• Winnicott, D. W. (2018). Psycho-Analytic Explorations. Londra: Routledge.
• Winslow, F. (1853). Journal Of Psychological Medicine Mental Pathology (Cilt 6). Londra : John Churchill. Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.