Avrupa’da Aşırı Sağ Partilerin Yükselişine Etki Eden Faktörler: Fransa, İtalya, Hollanda ve İsveç Örneği

Yıl 2024, , 77 - 108, 30.05.2024

Hüseyin Sevinç

https://doi.org/10.19059/mukaddime.1391155

Öz

Günümüz Avrupa siyaseti kendi içerisinde bir dönüşüme uğramaktadır. Bu dönüşüm yavaş olmakla birlikte aşırı sağ partiler lehine yeni bir siyasal eğilim oluşturma aşamasındadır. Önceki dönemlerde siyasi yelpazenin uç kısımlarında yer alan aşırı sağ partiler günümüz Avrupa’sında ana akım partiler ile koalisyon hükümetleri içerisinde yer alabilecek pozisyona ulaşmışlardır. Bu bağlamda, çalışmanın temel araştırma sorusu; ekonomik kriz, göçmen krizi, İslamofobi ve küreselleşmenin Fransa, İtalya, Hollanda ve İsveç’te aşırı sağ partilerin yükselişini etkileyip etkilemediğidir. Araştırma sorusu kapsamında durum çalışması yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Ortaya çıkan sonuca göre belirtilen faktörlerin herbirinin aşırı sağ partilerin yükselişinde önemli etmen oldukları tespit edilmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında ele alınan Avrupa’daki aşırı sağ partilerin yükselişi incelendiğinde bu yükselişin özellikle ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel dinamiklerin karmaşık etkileşiminin bir sonucu olarak ortaya çıktığı görülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Aşırı Sağ, Küreselleşme, Göçmen Krizi, Ekonomik Kriz, İslamofobi

The Factors Influencing the Rise of Far-Right Parties in Europe: The Case of France, Italy, Netherlands, and Sweden

Öz

Contemporary European politics is undergoing a transformation within itself. This transformation, albeit slow, is in the process of creating a new political trend in favor of far-right parties. In contemporary Europe, far-right parties, which were previously situated at the extremes of the political spectrum, have reached positions where they can be part of coalition governments with mainstream parties. In this context, the main research question of the study is whether the economic crisis, immigration crisis, Islamophobia, and globalization have influenced the rise of far-right parties in France, Italy, Netherlands and Sweden. The case study method has been employed within the scope of the research question. According to the results obtained, each of the specified factors has been identified as a significant factor in the rise of far-right parties. When the rise of far-right parties in Europe, examined within the scope of the research, is considered, it is observed that this rise is particularly a result of the complex interaction of economic, social, and cultural dynamics.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Far-Right, Globalization, Immigration Crisis, Economic Crisis, Islamophobia

Kaynakça

• AFP. (2023, 23 Kasım). Wilders and the PVV: What Do They stand For? France 24. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20231123-wilders-and-the-pvv-what-do-they-stand-for
• Akkerman, T. (2018). The Impact of Populist Radical-Right Parties on Immigration Policy Agendas: A look at the Netherlands. Migration Policy Institute, 1-26. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/populist-radical-right-parties-immigration-netherlands
• Art, D. (2013). Rise of the Radical Right: Implications for European Politics. The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 19 (2), 127-137.
• Asbrink, E. (2022, 20 Eylül). Sweden is Becoming Unbearable. The New Yok Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/20/opinion/sweden-democrats-elections.html
• Baldini, G., Tronconi, F., ve Angelucci, D. (2022). Yet Another Populist Party? Understanding the Rise of Brothers of Italy. South European Society and Politics, 27(3), 385-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2022.2159625
• Barone, G., D'Ignazio, A., De Blasio, G., ve Naticchioni, P. (2016). Mr. Rossi, Mr. Hu and Politics. The Role of Immigration in Shaping Natives' Voting Behavior. Journal of Public Economics, 136,1-13.
• Bastow, S. (1997). Front National Economic Policy: From Neo‐liberalism to Protectionism. Modern & Contemporary France, 5 (1), 61-72.
• Bastow, S. (2018). The Front National Under Marine Le Pen: A Mainstream Political Party? French Politics, 16, 19-37.
• Betz, H-G. (1994). Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe. London: McMillan Press Ltd.
• Betz, H-G. (2004). Exclusionary Populism in Western Europe in the 1990s and Beyond (Paper Number 9). Identities, Conflict and Cohesion Programme, (s. 1-17). United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/45939/9.pdf
• Betz, H-G. (2007). Against the ‘Green Totalitarianism': Anti-Islamic Nativism in Contemporary Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe. C. S. Liang (Ed.), Europe for the Europeans içinde (s. 33-54). Hampshire: Routledge.
• Betz, H-G. (1993). The New Politics of Resentment: Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe. Comparative politics, 25 (4), 413-427.
• Beyme, V. K. (1988). Right-Wing Extremism in Post-War Europe. West European Politics, 11 (2), 1-18. doi:10.1080/01402388808424678
• Bridge Initiative Team. (2020, 24 Şubat). Factsheet: National Rally (Rassemblement National, Previously Front National or National Front). The Bridge Initiative. https://bridge.georgetown.edu/research/factsheet-national-rally/
• Brunner, B. ve Kuhn, A. (2018). Immigration, Cultural Distance and Natives' Attitudes Towards Immigrants: Evidence From Swiss Voting Results. Kyklos, 71 (1), 28-58.
• Bustikova, L. (2014). Revenge of the Radical Right. Comparative Political Studies, 47 (12), 1738-1765.
• Chrisafis, A. (2017, 24 Nisan). It's Macron or Le Pen After First Round of France's Presidential Election. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/23/macron-set-to-face-le-pen-after-first-round-of-french-presidential-election
• Chrisafis, A. (2022, 4 Nisan). The Rise and Rise of France’s Far-Right Marine Le Pen. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/04/the-rise-and-rise-of-frances-far-right-marine-le-pen
• Conway, A. (2022, 21 Eylül). The 2022 Swedish Elections: The Sweden Democrats Come in From the Cold.  The Institute of International & European Affairs Search. https://www.iiea.com/blog/the-2022-swedish-elections-the sweden-democrats-come-in-from-the-cold
• Crouch, V. C. (2016, 22 Temmuz). Der Reiz der Nationalen Identität. Cicero. https://www.cicero.de/innenpolitik/rechtspopulismus-und-finanzkrise
• De Jonge, L. (2021). The Success and Failure of Right-Wing Populist Parties in the Benelux Countries. New York: Routledge.
• De Jonge, L., ve Van Kessel, S. (2023, 18 Aralık). Lessons From the Netherlands on the Rise of the Populist Radical Right. UK in a Chancing Europe. https://ukandeu.ac.uk/lessons-from-the-netherlands-on-the-rise-of-the-populist-radical-right/
• De Lange, S. L. (2012). New Alliances: Why Mainstream Parties Govern With Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties. Political Studies, 60 (4), 1-20.
• Donà, A. (2022). The Rise of the Radical Right in Italy: The Case of Fratelli d’Italia. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 27(5), 775-794. https://doi.org/10.1080/1354571X.2022.2113216
• Dustmann, C., Vasiljeva, K., ve Piil Damm, A. (2019). Refugee Migration and Electoral Outcomes. The Review of Economic Studies, 86 (5), 2035-2091.
• Duxbury, C. (2023, 14 Temmuz). Swedish Government Tested by Far-Right Alliance. Politico. https://www.politico.eu/article/sweden-government-far-right-alliance-ulf-kristersson-euroskeptic-migration-climate-eu/
• Eriş, Ö. Ü., ve Öner, S. (2021). Securitization of Migration and the Rising Influence of Populist Radical Right Parties in European Politics. Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 20(1), 161-193.
• Erlingsson, G. Ó., Loxbo, K., ve Öhrvall, R. (2012). Anti-Immigrant Parties, Local Presence and Electoral Success. Local government Studies, 38(6), 817-839.
• Federal Statistical Office. (2023, 1 Eylül). Population by Migration Status. Switzerland Federal Statistical Office Section Demography and Migration. https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics /population /migration- integration/by-migration-status.html
• Funke, M, Schularick, M., ve Trebesch, C. (2016). Going to Extremes: Politics After Financial Crises, 1870–2014. European Economic Review, 88, 227-260.
• Gang, D. (2022, 19 Ekim). Swedes’ Rising Support For Far Right Driven by Sense of Crisis in Ideology, or Swedish Culture. Global Times. https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202210/1277475.shtml
• Golder, M. (2016). Far Right Parties in Europe. Annual Review of Political Science, 19, 477-497.
• Griera, M. (2023, 22 Kasım). Euroscepticism Looms Over Future Dutch Government. Euractiv. https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/ euroscepticism-looms-over-future-dutch-government/
• Guibernau, M. (2010). Migration and the Rise of the Radical Right. Policy Network, 1, 1-19.
• Hainsworth, P. (2008). The Extreme Right in Europe. Oxon: Routledge.
• Halikiopoulou, D., ve Vlandas, T. (2019). What is New and What is Nationalist About Europe's New Nationalism? Explaining the Rise of the Far Right in Europe. Nations and Nationalism, 25 (2), 409-434.
• Halla, M., Wagner, A. F., ve Zweimüller, J. (2017). Immigration and Voting for the Far Right. Journal of the European Economic Association, 15 (6), 1341-1385.
• Henley, J. (2023, 30 Haziran). How Europe’s Far Right is Marching Steadily into the Mainstream. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/ jun/30/far-right-on-the-march-europe-growing-taste-for-control-and-order
• Hewlett, N, ve Kuhn, R. (2022). Reflections on the 2022 Elections in France. Modern & Contemporary France, 30 (4), 393-409.
• Hivert, A-F. (2022, 6 Ekim). Sweden Democrats Want to 'Make Sweden Great Again'. Le Monde. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/economy/article/2022/ 10/06/sweden-democrats-want-to-make-sweden-great-again_5999436_ 19.html
• Hübinette, T. (2022, 19 Ekim). Race and Sweden’s Fascist Turn. Boston Review. https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/race-and-swedens-fascist-turn/
• Ignazi, P. (1995). The Re-Emergence of Extreme Right-Wing Parties in Europe. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-267154
• Ignazi, P. (1992). The Silent Counter‐Revolution: Hypotheses on the Emergence of Extreme Right‐Wing Parties in Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 22 (1), 3-34.
• Ignazi, P. (2003). Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Ignazi, P. (2018). I partiti in Italia dal 1945 al 2018. Bologna:il Mulino.
• Jang, Y. (2023). Globalization and Its Backlash? The Rise of the Far Right in Europe (KIEP Opinions-254-January 3, 2023). https://www.kiep.go.kr/gallery. es?mid=a20308000000&bid=0008&list_no=10515&act=view
• Jungar, A.-C. (2022, Aralık). Normalasing the Pariah: The Sweden Democrats Path From Isolation to Government. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1-4. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/stockholm/19832.pdf
• Kenes, B. (2020). The Sweden Democrats: Killer of Swedish Exceptionalism (ECPS Party Profiles, Issue ECPS Party Profifile Series #1). European Center for Populism Studies (ECPS). https://www.populismstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ECPS-Party-Profile-Series-1.pdf
• Keohane, R. O., ve Nye, J. S. (2000). Globalization: What's new? What's Not? (And so what?). Foreign Policy Journal,118, 104-119.
• Kıldiş, H. P. (2020). Rising Far-Right in France: The Example of the National Front. Bölgesel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 4 (1), 143-176.
• Kitschelt, H., ve McGann, A. J. (1997). The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. United States of America: University of Michigan Press.
• Kopecek, L. (2007). The Far Right in Europe: A Summary of Attempts to Define the Concept, Analyze Its Identity, and Compare the Western European and Central European Far Right. Central European Political Studies Review, 9 (4), 280-293.
• Koutsokosta, E. (2023, 19 Haziran). Why the Far-Right is Increasingly Getting Into Power Across Europe. Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2023/06/19/why-the-far-right-is-increasingly-getting-into-power-across-europe
• Louati, Y. (2022, 2 Aralık). Europe's Far-Right Shift: The Targeting of Muslims and Migrants in Sweden. The New Arab. https://www.newarab.com/ opinion/europes-far-right-shift-targeting-muslims-sweden
• Lucardie, P., ve Wilders, V. G. (2013). The Party for Freedom in the Netherlands: A Political Entrepreneur in the Polder. Grabow, K. ve Hartleb, F. (Eds.), Exposing the Demagogues: Right-Wing and Nationalist Populist Parties in Europe içinde (s. 187-204). Belgium: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V.
• Malone, J. J. (2014). Examining the Rise of Right Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe. (Honor Theses 1963-2015). College of Saint Benedict/Saint John's University, Queens NY. https://digitalcommons.csbsju.edu/honors_ theses/45/
• Marin, M. A. (2022). Italy. Bayraklı, E. ve Hafez, F. (Eds.), European Islamophobia Report 2022 içinde (s. 345-364). İstanbul: Leopold Weiss Institute.
• Rensmann, L. (2003). The New Politics of Prejudice: Comparative Perspectives on Extreme Right Parties in European Democracies. German Politics and Society, 21 (4), 93-123.
• Robertson, R., ve White, K. E. (2007). What is Globalization? G. Ritzer (Ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Globalization içinde (s. 54-66). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
• Rodríguez-Aguilera, C. (2014). The Rise of The Far Right in Europe. IEMed Mediterranean. https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-rise-of-the-far-right-in-europe/
• Russo, L., Sandri, G., ve Seddone, A. (2023). Italy: Political Developments and Data in 2022: From Draghi to Meloni. European Journal of Political Research Political Data Yearbook, 62(1), 264-287. https://doi.org/10.1111/2047-8852.12420
• Rydgren, J. (2007). The Sociology of the Radical Right. Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 241-262.
• Scholte, J. A. (2005). Globalization: A critical Introduction (2. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Scholte, J. A. (2008). Defining Globalization. The World Economy, 31: 1471-1502. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9701.2007.01019.x
• Sekeris, P., ve Vasilakis, C. (2016). The Mediterranean Refugees Crisis and Extreme Right Parties: Evidence from Greece. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 1-14. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/72222/1/MPRA_paper_72222.pdf.
• Shiraliyev, M. (2022). Avrupa’da Aşırı Sağ Partilerin Yükselişinin Temel Belirleyicileri. SDE Akademi Dergisi, 2 (6), 140-159.
• Simmons, H. G. (1996). The French National Front: The Extremist Challenge to Democracy. Boulder: Westview Press.
• Sondel-Cedarmas, J. (2022). Giorgia Meloni's New Europe: Europe of Sovereign Nations In the Brothers of Italy Party Manifestos. Sondel-Cedarmas, J. ve Berti, F. (Eds.), The Right-Wing Critique of Europe:Nationalist, Sovereignist And Right-Wing Populist Attitudes To the EU içinde (s. 60-75). Oxon: Routledge.
• Sriyono, A. A. (2023, 2 Aralık). Dutch Election Results And Their Impact On Europe. Kompas.id. https://www.kompas.id/baca/english/2023/12/01/en-hasil-pemilu-belanda-dan-dampaknya-pada-eropa
• Startin, N. (2022). Marine Le Pen, The Rassemblement National And Breaking The ‘Glass Ceiling’? The 2022 French Presidential And Parliamentary Elections. Modern & Contemporary France, 30(4), 427-443. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639489.2022.2138841
• Stockemer, D. (2016). Structural Data on Immigration or Immigration Perceptions? What Accounts for the Electoral Success of the Radical Right in Europe? JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 54 (4), 999-1016.
• Stockemer, D. (2017). The Economic Crisis (2009–2013) And Electoral Support For the Radical Right in Western Europe—Some New and Unexpected Findings. Social Science Quarterly, 98(5), 1536-1553. The UN Refugee Agency. (2022, 22 Kasım). Global Appeal/Europe. The UN Refugee Agency. https://reporting.unhcr.org/globalappeal/europe
• Thompson, J. B. (2012). The Metamorphosis of a Crisis. M. Castells, J. Caraca, ve G. Cardoso (Eds.), Aftermath: The Cultures Of the Economic Crisis içinde (s. 59-82). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Valbruzzi, M., ve Ventura, S. (2023). Fratelli d’Italia and Lega What is the Recipe For Success of Italian Populism? Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftungi. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/rom/20026.pdf
• Verdun, A. (2019). Economic and Monetary Union. M. Cini ve N. P.-S. Borragan (Eds.), European Union Politics içinde (6. ed., s. 344-356). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Wilcox, A., Weinberg, L., ve Eubank, W. (2003). Explaining National Variations in Support For Far Right Political Parties in Western Europe, 1990–2000. P. H. Merkl ve L. Weinberg (Eds.), Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century içinde (s. 126-158). London: Frank Cass.
• Williams, M. H. (2010). Can Leopards Change Their Spots? Between Xenophobia and Trans-Ethnic Populism Among West European Far Right Parties. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 16 (1), 111-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537110903583385
• Vinocur, N. (2017, 5 Şubat). Marine Le Pen Makes Globalization The Enemy. Politico. https://www.politico.eu/article/marine-le-pen-globalization-campaign-launch-french-politics-news-lyon-islam/
• Vlug, J. (2022). Netherlands. Bayraklı, E. ve Hafez, F. (Eds.), European Islamophobia Report 2022 içinde (s. 401-430). İstanbul: Leopold Weiss Institute.
• Vossen, K. (2011). Classifying Wilders: The Ideological Development of Geert Wilders and His Party for Freedom. Politics, 31(3), 179-189.
• Vossen, K. (2013). The Different Flavours of Populism In the Netherlands. H. Giusto, D. Kitching, ve S. Rizzo (Eds.), The Changing Faces of Populism. Systemic Challengers in Europe And The US içinde (s. 173-191). Bruxelles: FEPS – Foundation for European Progressive Studies.
• Vossen, K. (2017). The Power of Populism: Geert Wilders And The Party for Freedom In The Netherlands. Oxon: Routledge.
• Zick, A., Küpper, B., ve Hövermann, A. (2011). Intolerance, Prejudice and Discrimination-A European Report. Berlin: Nora Langenbacher Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Forum Berlin.