Çağlar Boyunca Salgınlar: Bulaşıcı Hastalıkların Tarihsel Bir Yolculuğu

Öz

Tarih boyunca salgın potansiyeli taşıyan bulaşıcı hastalıklar ortaya çıkmış ve düzenli olarak yayılarak veba, kolera, grip, şiddetli akut solunum sendromu koronavirüsü (SARS-CoV) ve Orta Doğu solunum sendromu koronavirüsü (MERS-CoV) gibi büyük salgınlara neden olarak insanlık tarihi üzerinde derin etkiler bırakmıştır. Yakın zamanda ise dünya şiddetli akut solunum yolu sendromu koronavirüsü 2 (SARS-CoV-2) salgınıyla karşı karşıya kalmıştır. Salgınlara yol açan bu bulaşıcı hastalıkların çoğu, üreme, avlanma ve küresel ticaret gibi faaliyetler yoluyla hayvanlarla artan etkileşimler nedeniyle insanlara geçen zoonotik patojenlerden kaynaklanmaktadır. Gelişen şehirler, artan seyahatlerin yanı sıra artan insan nüfusu nedeniyle ekosistemler üzerindeki etkiler, bulaşıcı hastalıkların ortaya çıkmasını ve yayılmasını artırarak salgınlara hatta pandemilere yol açmıştır. Patojenlerin hayvanlardan insanlara zoonotik aktarımı, ortaya çıkan enfeksiyonların tarih boyunca insanları etkilemesinde önemli bir mekanizmadır. Bu patojenlerin insanlara bulaşma mekanizmalarının anlaşılması, önleme ve kontrol yöntemlerinin geliştirilmesine olanak sağlamıştır. Çağlar boyunca izolasyon, karantina ve sınır kontrolü gibi halk sağlığı önlemlerinin uygulanması, bulaşıcı hastalıkların yayılmasının kontrol altına alınmasına ve toplum yapısının korunmasına yardımcı olmuştur. Eski Çağlardan içinde bulunduğumuz tarihe kadar uzanan bulaşıcı hastalıklar bunların yaşamlara, tarihsel ve toplumsal eğilimlere etkisi, bize sürekli olarak bulaşıcı hastalıkların taşıdığı muazzam gücü hatırlatmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Enfeksiyon
• salgın hastalıklar
• tıp tarihi

Epidemics through the Ages: A Historical Journey of Infectious Diseases

Öz

Throughout history, infectious diseases with epidemic potential have emerged regularly, causing profound effects on human history, such as major pandemics and epidemics like the plague, cholera, influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Recently, the world has faced the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Many of these infectious diseases leading to epidemics stem from zoonotic pathogens, transferring to humans due to increased interactions with animals through activities such as breeding, hunting, and global trade. The growth of urban areas, heightened mobility, and the consequential effects on natural habitats caused by the expanding human populace have heightened the occurrence and dissemination of infectious illnesses, resulting in widespread epidemics and, at times, global pandemics. The transfer of pathogens from animals to humans, known as zoonotic transmission, is a crucial mechanism through which newfound infections have impacted human populations across historical periods. Understanding the transmission mechanisms of these pathogens to humans has enabled the development of methods for prevention and control. Throughout the ages, the implementation of public health measures, including isolation, quarantine, and border control, has played a crucial role in managing the spread of infectious diseases, preserving societal structures. The historical and social ramifications of infectious diseases, dating back to ancient times, serve as constant reminders of the immense impact these diseases wield.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Infection
• Epidemic diseases
• History of medicine

Kaynakça

1. 1. Yurdakul ES. Tarihte önemli bulaşıcı hastalık salgınları. Turk J Public Health 2015;1.3: 1-6.
2. 2. Lindahl JF, Grace D. The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: a review. Infect. Ecol. Epidemiology 2015;5(1):30048.
3. 3. Wolfe ND, Dunavan CP, Diamond J. Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature 2007; 447(7142): 279-283.
4. 4. Piret J, Boivin G. Pandemics throughout history. Front. Microbiol 2021;11:631736.
5. 5. Silbergeld E, et al. New infectious diseases and industrial food animal production. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010.
6. 6. Parıldar H, Dikici MF. Pandemiler tarihi. Klinik Tıp Aile Hekimliği 2020;2(1):1-8.
7. 7. Petruševski AB. History of infectious diseases development in the Old and the Middle Ages with the emphasis on the plague and leprosy. Vojnosanit Pregl 2013;70(7):704-708.
8. 8. Morens DM.,et al. Pandemic COVID-19 joins history’s pandemic legion. MBio 2020;11(3):10.1128/mbio.00812-20.

9. 9. Bilgehan H. Klinik mikrobiyoloji: özel bakteriyoloji ve bakteri enfeksiyonları. Barış Yayınları Fakülteler Kitapevi. 1990.
10. 10. Achtman M, et al. Yersinia pestis, the cause of plague, is a recently emerged clone of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. PNAS 1999;96(24):14043-14048.
11. 11. Frith J. The history of plague-part 1: The three great pandemics. JMVH 2012;20(2):11-16.
12. 12. Rosen W. Justinian's Flea: The First Great Plague and the End of the Roman Empire. Penguin. 2007
13. 13. Zietz BP, Dunkelberg H. The history of the plague and the research on the causative agent Yersinia pestis. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004;207(2):165-178.
14. 14. Seifert L, et al. Genotyping Yersinia pestis in historical plague: evidence for long-term persistence of Y. pestis in Europe from the 14th to the 17th century. PLoS One 2016;11(1):e0145194.
15. 15. Spyrou MA, et al. Historical Y. pestis genomes reveal the European Black Death as the source of ancient and modern plague pandemics. Cell host & microbe 2016;19(6):874-881.
16. 16. Bramanti B, et al. Plague: A disease which changed the path of human civilization. Yersinia pestis: retrospective and perspective. Adv Exp Med Biol 2016;1-26.
17. 17. Young NH, Andrews PJD. Developing a prognostic model for traumatic brain injury—a missed opportunity?. PLoS Med 2008;5(8):e168.
18. 18. Yılmaz Ö. 1847-1848 Kolera Salgını ve Osmanlı Coğrafyasındaki Etkileri. AVİD 2017;6(1):23-55.
19. 19. Smith GD. Commentary: Behind the Broad Street pump: aetiology, epidemiology and prevention of cholera in mid-19th century Britain. Int. J. Epidemiol 2002;31(5):920-932.
20. 20. Safa A, Nair GB, Kong RY. Evolution of new variants of Vibrio cholerae O1. Trends Microbiol 2010;18(1):46-54.
21. 21. Lina B. History of influenza pandemics. Paleomicrobiology: past human infections 2008;199-211.
22. 22. Valleron AJ, et al. Transmissibility and geographic spread of the 1889 influenza pandemic. PNAS 2010;107(19):8778-8781.
23. 23. Johnson N. Britain and the 1918-19 influenza pandemic: a dark epilogue. Routledge, 2006 Jun 23.
24. 24. Patterson KD, Pyle GF. The geography and mortality of the 1918 influenza pandemic. Bull Hist Med 1991;65(1):4-21.
25. 25. Shors T. Understanding viruses. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 2017.
26. 26. Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci AS. The persistent legacy of the 1918 influenza virus. NEJM 2009;361(3):225-229.
27. 27. Vaillant L,et al. Epidemiology of fatal cases associated with pandemic H1N1 influenza 2009. Euro Surveill 2009;14(33):19309.
28. 28. Tyrrell DAJ, et al. Cultivation of viruses from a high proportion of patients with colds. Lancet 1966;76-7.
29. 29. Mcintosh K, et al. Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease. PNAS 1967;57(4):933-940.
30. 30. Tyrrell DA, et al. Coronaviridae. Intervirology 1975;5(1-2): 76.
31. 31. Ge Xing-Yi, et al. Isolation and characterization of a bat SARS-like coronavirus that uses the ACE2 receptor. Nat 2013;503(7477): 535-538.
32. 32. Hui DS, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: risk factors and determinants of primary, household, and nosocomial transmission. Lancet Infect. Dis 2018;18(8):e217-e227.
33. 33. Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet 2015;386(9997):995-1007.
34. 34. Ben H, et al. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nat. Rev. Microbiol 2021;19(3):141-154.
35. 35. NCBI [Internet]. Taxonomy Browser (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2). National Center fo Biotechnology Information. Availiable from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=2697049
36. 36. Tang X, et al. On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Natl.Sci 2020;7(6):1012-1023.
37. 37. Lu R, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 2020;395(10224):565-574.
38. 38. Dhar MS, et al. Genomic characterization and epidemiology of an emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant in Delhi, India. Science 2021;374(6570):995-999.
39. 39. Gu H, et al. Genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 under an elimination strategy in Hong Kong. Nat. Commun 2022;13(1):736.
40. 40. Davıes NG, et al. Increased mortality in community-tested cases of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.1.7. Nat 2021;593(7858):270-274.
41. 41. Hart WS, et al. Generation time of the alpha and delta SARS-CoV-2 variants: an epidemiological analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2022;22(5):603-610.
42. 42. Vıana R, et al. Rapid epidemic expansion of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in southern Africa. Nat 2022;603(7902):679-686.
43. 43. Hao YJ, et al. The origins of COVID‐19 pandemic: A brief overview. Transbound. Emerg. Dis 2022;69(6):3181-3197.