Tehdit Teşkil Eden Öteki midir? Yoksa Kendisi mi? AB’nin Çıkmazları ve Kendini Feshetme Politikası

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 2, 239 - 262, 30.12.2021

Çevirmen: Branislav Radeljić

Öz

Avrupa bütünleşme süreci büyük bir çıkmazın içindedir. Politik kavram karmaşaları, yalnızca ekonomik milliyetçilik ekseninde alınan kararlar ve kutuplaşma nedeniyle kolaylıkla manipüle edilebilen bir toplum, Avrupa Birliği’ni büyük bir sınava tabi tutmuştur. Bu makale; Avrupa Birliği’nin katılımcı bir yapı geliştirme ve kritik meseleler hakkında tek ses olarak söz söyleme konusundaki yetersizliğinin, AB itibarını sadece üye ülkelerde (periferi ya da dezavantajlı ülkeler) ve Avrupa çeperinde (AB üyeliğine aday veya komşu ülkelere yaptığı anlaşmalar dahil) değil, aynı zamanda dünyada da sarstığını tartışmaktadır. Üstelik AB, içerideki Öteki’ne ek olarak, AB sınırları içindeki ya da AB üyeliğini ümit eden dışarıdaki Öteki ikilemiyle daima bir mücadele içinde olmuştur. Bununla birlikte, Brüksel yönetimi, büyük takdir gören Avrupa değerleriyle çelişkili bir biçimde Batı Balkan halkının kurumlar ve ana aktörler için duyduğu hoşnutsuzluğu büyük ölçüde göz ardı ederek, komşu ülkelerdeki yarı otoriter rejimleri açıkça desteklemiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

AB, Avrupa kimliği, hükümetlerarasılık, dayanışma, krizler

Kaynakça

• Adam, R. G. (2020). Brexit: Causes and Consequences. Cham: Springer.
• Agamben, G. (2020a). L’invenzione di un’epidemia. Quodlibet. 26 Şubat, https://www.quodlibet.it/giorgio-agamben-l-invenzione-di-un-epidemia adresinden alındı.
• Agamben, G. (2020b). Chiarimenti. Quodlibet. 17 Mart, https://www.quodlibet.it/giorgio-agamben-chiarimenti adresinden alındı.
• Almond, M. (1994). Europe’s Backyard War: The War in the Balkans. Londra: William Heinemann.
• Andreev, S. A. (2003). Path dependence and external shocks: The dynamics of the EU enlargement eastwards. F. Laaursen (Der.), Comparative Regional Integration: Theoretical Perspectives (251–270). Londra: Ashgate. Baciu, C.-A. & Doyle, J. (Der.) (2019). Peace, Security and Defence Cooperation in Post-Brexit Europe: Risks and Opportunities. Cham: Springer.
• Bayley, P., & Williams, G. (Der.) (2012). European Identity: What the Media Say. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Bellucci, P., Sanders, D., & Serricchio, F. (2012). Explaining European identity. D. Sanders, P. Bellucci, G. Tóka & M. Torcal (Der.), The Europeanization of National Polities? Citizenship and Support in a Post-Enlargement Union (61–90). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Bertoncini, Y. (2020). European solidarity in times of crisis: A legacy to be deepened in the face of Covid-19. Fondation Robert Schuman European Issues. 20 Nisan, https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/european-issues/0555-european-solidarity-in-times-of-crisis-a-legacy-to-be-deepened-in-the-face-of-covid-19.
• Best, E. (2005). The European Union’s constitutional crisis: Causes and consequences. Intereconomics, 40(4), 180–200.
• Bhambra, G. K. (2017). Locating Brexit in the pragmatics of race, citizenship and empire. W. Outhwaite (Der.), Brexit: Sociological Responses (91–99). Londra: Anthem Press.
• Bourdieu, P. (1990). In Other Words: Essays towards a Reflexive Sociology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Caldwell, C. (2009). Reflections on the Revolution in Europe: Immigration, Islam and the West. Londra: Penguin Books.
• Cap, P. (2019). “Britain is full to bursting point!” Immigration themes in the Brexit discourse of the UK Independence Party. V. Koller, S. Kopf & M. Miglbauer (Der.), Discourses of Brexit (69–85). Oxon: Routledge.
• Checkel, J. T., & Katzenstein, P. J. (Der.) (2009). European Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Chomsky, N. (2017). The Responsibility of Intellectuals. New York: The New Press.
• Closa, C. (Der.) (2017). Secession from a Member State and Withdrawal from the European Union: Troubled Membership. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Conti, N., Göncz, B., & Real-Dato, J. (Der.) (2018). National Political Elites, European Integration, and the Eurozone Crisis. Londra: Routledge.
• Cotta, M. (2012). Political elites and a polity in the making: The case of the EU. Historical Social Research, 37(1), 167–192.
• Council of Europe (2008). White paper on intercultural dialogue: Living together as equals in dignity. 2 Mayıs, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/intercultural/Source/White%20Paper%20final%20EN%20020508.pdf.
• Croft, S., & Williams, P. (Der.). (1992). European security without the Soviet Union. Londra: Frank Cass.
• da Costa Cabral, N., Gonçalves, J.R., & Rodrigues, N.C. (Der.) (2017). After Brexit: Consequences for the European Union. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Dāianu, D., Basevi, G., D’Adda, C., & Kumar, R. (Der.) (2014). The Eurozone crisis and the future of Europe: The political economy of further integration and governance. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• De Grauwe, P. (2016). What future for the EU after Brexit? Intereconomics, 51(5), 249–251.
• Derrida, J. (1992). The Other Heading: Reflections on Today’s Europe. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Díez Medrano, J. (2009). The public sphere and the European Union’s political identity. J. T. Checkel & P. J. Katzenstein (Der.), European Identity (81–107). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Draper, T. (2006). Intellectuals in politics. A. Etzioni & A. Bowditch (Der.), Public Intellectuals: An Endangered Species? (201–226). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• Duff, A., Pinder, J., & Pryce, R. (Der.) (1994). Maastricht and Beyond: Building the European Union. Londra: Routledge.
• Eberwein, T., Fengler, S., & Karmasin, M. (Der.) (2019). Media Accountability in the Era of Post-Truth Politics: European Challenges and Perspectives. Oxon: Routledge.
• ECNL [European Center for Non-for-Profit Law] (2016). Civil participation in decision-making processes. https://rm.coe.int/civil-participation-in-decision-making-processes-an-overview-of-standa/1680701801.
• Emerson, M. (2011). Summary and conclusions. M. Emerson (Der.), Interculturalism: Europe and its Muslims in Search of Sound Societal Models (1–16). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
• Etzioni, A., & Bowditch, A. (Der.) (2006). Public Intellectuals: An Endangered Species? Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• EU Council (2000). Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin. Official Journal of the European Communities, 19 Temmuz, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32000L0043&from=en.
• EU Council (2006). Decision no. 1983/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the European Year of intercultural dialogue (2008). Official Journal of the European Union, 30 Aralık, L 412/45.
• European Commission (2019). Citizens’ dialogues and citizens’ consultations: Key conclusions. 30 Nisan, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/euco-sibiu-citizensdialogues_en.pdf.
• European Union (2007). Declaration on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the signature of the Treaties of Rome. http://www.eu2007.de/en/About_the_EU/Constitutional_Treaty/BerlinerErklaerung.html.
• Ferguson, N. (2005). Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire. Londra: Penguin Books.
• Fleck, C., Hess, A., & Stina Lyon, E. (2009). Intellectuals and Their Publics: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. Farnham: Ashgate.
• Foblets, M.-C. (2012). Religion and rethinking of the public-private divide: Introduction. S. Ferrari & S. Pastorelli (Der.), Religion in Public Spaces: A European Perspective (1–21). Farnham: Ashgate.
• Fouskas, V., & Gökay, B. (2019). The Disintegration of Euro-Atlanticism and New Authoritarianism: Global Power-Shift. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Galpin, C. (2017). The Euro Crisis and European Identities: Political and Media Discourse in Germany, Ireland, and Poland. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Gattig, A., & Blings, S. (2013). Disaffected citizens? Why people vote in national referendums about EU treaty reform? U. Liebert, A. Gattig & T. Evas (Der.), Democratising the EU from Below? Citizenship, Civil Society and the Public Sphere (61–82). Farnham: Ashgate.
• Genscher, H. D. (1998). Rebuilding a House Divided: A Memoir by the Architect of Germany’s Reunification. New York: Broadway Books.
• Gerba, E. (2018). Mission impossible: Calculating the economic costs of Brexit. LSE Blog, 19 Haziran, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/06/19/mission-impossible-calculating-the-economic-costs-of-brexit/.
• Giddens, A. (2014). Turbulent and Mighty Continent: What Future for Europe? Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Gifford, C. (2014). The Making of Eurosceptic Britain: Identity and Economy in a Post-Imperial State. Farnham: Ashgate.
• Givens, T. E., & Evans Case, R. (2014). Legislating Equality: The Politics of Antidiscrimination Policy in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Glencross, A. (2014). Politics of European Integration: Political Union or a House Divided? Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
• Göle, N. (2013). Introduction: Islamic controversies in the making of European public spaces. N. Göle (Der.), Islam and public controversy in Europe (3–20). Farnham: Ashgate.
• Green, S. (2015). The European Identity: Historical and Cultural Realities. Londra: Haus Publishing.
• Grimell, A. (Der.) (2017). The Crisis of the European Union: Challenges, Analyses, Solutions. Oxon: Routledge.
• Gruber, O. (2017). “Refugees (no longer) welcome:” Asylum discourse and policy in Austria in the wake of the 2015 refugee crisis. M. Barlai, B. Fähnrich, C. Griessler & M. Rhomberg (Der.), The Migrant Crisis: European Perspectives and National Discourses (39–57). Zurih: Lit Verlag.
• Guasti, P. (2013). A panacea for democratic legitimation? Assessing the engagement of civil society with EU treaty reform politics. U. Liebert, A. Gattig & T. Evas (Der.), Democratising the EU from Below? Citizenship, Civil Society and the Public Sphere (135–163). Farnham: Ashgate.
• Guibernau, M. (2009). Towards a European identity? A. Gamble & D. Lane (Der.), European Union and World Politics: Consensus and Division (274–290). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Habermas, J. (2006). The Divided West. Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Habermas, J. (2009). Europe: The Faltering Project. Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Habermas, J. (2012). The Crisis of the European Union: A Response. Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Haller, M. (2008). European Integration as an Elite Process: The Failure of a Dream? Oxon: Routledge.
• Havlík, V., & Mocek, O. (2018). Václav Klaus as a driver of Czech Euroskepticism. T. Hashimoto & M. Rhimes (Der.), Reviewing European Union Accession: Unexpected Results, Spillover Effects, and Externalities (96–112). Leiden: Brill.
• Hobolt, S. B. (2016). The Brexit vote: A divided nation, a divided continent. Journal of European Public Policy, 23(9), 1259–1277.
• Holmes, D. R. (2009). Experimental identities (after Maastricht). J. T. Checkel & P. J. Katzenstein (Der.), European identity (52–80). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Hughes, E. (2011). Turkey’s Accession to the European Union: The Politics of Exclusion? Londra: Routledge.
• Jansen, T. (1998). The European People’s Party: Origins and Development. Basingstoke: MacMillans.
• Jonasson, A. K. (2013). The EU’s Democracy Promotion and the Mediterranean Neighbours. Oxon: Routledge.
• Joppke, C. (2009). Veil: Mirror of Identity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Kaina, V., Karolewski, I. P., & Kuhn, S. (Der.) (2017). European Identity Revisited: New Approaches and Recent Empirical Evidence. Abingdon: Routledge.
• Kauppi, N. (2018). Toward a Reflexive Political Sociology of the European Union: Fields, Intellectuals and Politicians. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Kennedy, P. (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000. New York: Random House.
• Kupchan, C. A. (2003). The End of the American Era: US Foreign Policy and the Geopolitics of the Twentieth-first Century. New York: Vintage.
• Kupchan, C. A. (2010). The potential twilight of the European Union. Council on Foreign Relations, http://www.cfr.org/world/potential-twilight-european-union/p22934.
• Lacroix, J., & Nicolaïdis, K. (Der.) (2010). European Stories: Intellectual Debates on Europe in National Contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Lane, D. (2007). Post-communist states and the European Union. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 23(4), 461–477.
• Larivé, M. H. A. (2014). Debating European Defense and Security Policy: Understanding the Complexity. Farnham: Ashgate.
• Laursen, F. (Der.) (2008). The Rise and Fall of the EU’s Constitutional Treaty. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
• Lees, C. (2020). Brexit, the failure of the British political class, and the case for greater diversity in UK political recruitment. British Politics, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s41293-020-00136-6.
• Magdaleno, C. (2020). Chomsky on Covid-19: The latest massive failure of neoliberalism. Euractiv, 25 Nisan, https://www.euractiv.com/section/economy-jobs/interview/chomsky-on-covid-19-the-latest-massive-failure-of-neoliberalism/.
• Mainwaring, C. (2019). At Europe’s Edge: Migration and Crisis in the Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Marsh, S., & Rees, W. (2012). The European Union in the Security of Europe: From Cold War to Terror War. Oxon: Routledge.
• Martill, B., & Staiger, U. (2018). Brexit and Beyond: Rethinking the Futures of Europe. London: UCL Press.
• Mayhew, A. (1998). The European Union’s policy toward Eastern Europe: Design or drift C. Rhodes (Der.), The European Union in the World Community (105–126). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• McAllister, R. (1997). From EC to EU: An Historical and Political Survey. London: Routledge.
• Mckenzie, L. (2017a). “It’s not ideal:” Reconsidering “anger” and “apathy” in the Brexit vote among an invisible working class. Competition & Change, 21(3), 199–210.
• Mckenzie, L. (2017b). The class politics of prejudice: Brexit and the land of no-hope and glory. The British Journal of Sociology, 68(S1), 265–280.
• Mearsheimer, J. (1990). Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War. International Security, 15(1), 1–56.
• Meier, V. (1999). Yugoslavia: A History of its Demise. London and New York: Routledge.
• Middlemas, K. (1995). Orchestrating Europe: The Informal Politics of the European Union, 1973–1995. London: Fontana Press.
• Moravcsik, A. (2010). Europe, the second superpower. Current History, 109(725), 91–98.
• Morley, J., & Taylor, C. (2012). Us and them: How immigrants are constructed in British and Italian newspapers. P. Bayley & G. Williams (Der.), European Identity: What the Media Say (190–223). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Oliver, T. (2018). Europe’s Brexit: EU Perspectives on Britain’s Vote to Leave. Newcastle upon Tyne: Agenda Publishing.
• Parekh, B. (2005). Does Islam threaten democracy? European Commission (Der.), The Spiritual and Cultural Dimension of Europe (35–37). Brüksel: European Commission.
• Radeljić, B. (2012). Europe and the Collapse of Yugoslavia: The Role of Non-State Actors and European Diplomacy. Londra: I. B. Tauris.
• Radeljić, B. (2014). On European identity. Branislav Radeljić (Der.), Debating European Identity: Bright Ideas, Dim Prospects (1–20). Oxford: Peter Lang.
• Radeljić, B. (2019). Tolerating semi-authoritarianism? Contextualizing the EU’s relationship with Serbia and Kosovo. J. Džankić, S. Keil, & M. Kmezić (Der.), The Europeanisation of the Western Balkans: A Failure of EU Conditionality? (157–180). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Ridge-Newman, A., León-Solís, F., & O’Donnell, H. (2018). Reporting the Road to Brexit: International Media and the EU Referendum 2016. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Riemer, N. (2015). How to justify a crisis. Jacobin, 10 Mayıs, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/10/refugee-crisis-europe-zizek-habermas-singer-greece-syria-academia/.
• Rios, B. (2020). Commission chief, MEPs slam lack of EU solidarity in COVID19 crisis. Euractiv, 26 Mart, https://www.euractiv.com/section/coronavirus/news/commission-chief-meps-slam-lack-of-eu-solidarity-in-covid19-crisis/.
• Rose, R. (2013). Representing Europeans: A Pragmatic Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Russack, S. (2018). Pathways for citizens to engage in EU policymaking. CEPS Policy Insights, 14. https://www.ceps.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/PI2018_14_SR_2CU%20chapter%20on%20Pathways%20for%20Citizens%20to%20Engage%20in%20EU%20Policymaking.pdf.
• Said, E. W. (1994). Representations of the Intellectual: The 1993 Reith Lectures. New York: Pantheon Books.
• Salter, B. (2018). When intellectuals fail? Brexit and hegemonic challenge. Competition & Change, 22(5), 467–487.
• Sanders, D., Bellucci, P., Tóka, G., & Torcal, M. (2012). Conceptualizing and measuring European citizenship and engagement. D. Sanders, P. Bellucci, G. Tóka & M. Torcal (Der.), The Europeanization of National Polities? Citizenship and Support in a Post-Enlargement Union (17–38). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Sarotte, M. E. (2014). 1989: The Struggle to Create post-Cold War Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Shipman, T. (2017). All Out War: The Full Story of how Brexit Sank Britain’s Political Class. Glasgow: HarperCollins.
• Silvestri, S. (2012). Comparing burqa debates in Europe: Sartorial styles, religious prescriptions, and political ideologies. S. Ferrari & Sabrina Pastorelli (Der.), Religion in Public Spaces: A European Perspective (275–292). Farnham: Ashgate.
• Smith, A. D. (1992). National identity and the idea of European unity. International Affairs, 68(1), 55–76.
• Spence, D. (1992). The European Community and German unification. German Politics, 1(3), 136–163.
• Spoerri, M. (2015). Engineering Revolution: The Paradox of Democracy Promotion in Serbia. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Stefanova, B. (2018). (Dis)trusting the European Union? On the evolving variety of Euroskepticism in Central and Eastern Europe. T. Hashimoto & M. Rhimes (Der.), Reviewing European Union Accession: Unexpected Results, Spillover Effects, and Externalities (77–95). Leiden: Brill.
• Stevis-Gridneff, M. (2020). As Europe confronts the coronavirus, what shape will solidarity take? The New York Times, 8 Nisan, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/world/europe/eu-coronavirus-aid.html.
• Surovell, J. (1995). Western Europe and the Western alliance: Soviet and post-Soviet perspectives. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 11(2), 155–197.
• Taylor, P. (1993). International Organization in the Modern World: The Regional and the Global Process. Londra & New York: Pinter.
• Terzi, Ö. (2010). The Influence of the European Union on Turkish Foreign Policy. Farnham: Ashgate.
• Thatcher, M. (1988). The Bruges Speech. 20 Eylül, https://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/107332.
• Tocci, N. (2011). Turkey’s European Future: Behind the Scenes of America’s Influence on EU-Turkey Relations. New York: New York University Press.
• Torcal, M., Bonet, E., & Costa Lobo, M. (2012). Institutional trust and responsiveness in the EU. D. Sanders, P. Bellucci, G. Tóka & M. Torcal (Der.), The Europeanization of National Polities? Citizenship and Support in a Post-Enlargement Union (91–111). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Trimikliniotis, N. (2019). Migration and the Refugee Dissensus in Europe: Borders, Security and Austerity. Oxon: Routledge.
• Valmorbida, A. (Der.) (2014). Citizens’ Participation at the Local Level in Europe and Neighbouring Countries. Brüksel: Peter Lang.
• Villaroman, N. G. (2012). The right to establish and maintain places of worship: The developments of its normative content under international human rights law. S. Ferrari & S. Pastorelli (Der.), Religion in Public Spaces: A European Perspective (295–322). Farnham: Ashgate.
• Wall, S. (2019). The Official History of Britain and the European Community: The Tiger Unleashed, 1975–1985. Oxon: Routledge.
• Wallach Scott, J. (2007). The Politics of the Veil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Winlow, S., Hall, S., & Treadwell, J. (2017). The Rise of the Right: English Nationalism and the Transformation of Working-Class Politics. Bristol: Policy Press.
• Zimmermann, W. (1996). Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and its Destroyers – America’s Last Ambassador Tells What Happened and Why. New York: Times Books.
• Žižek, S. (2020). Barbarism with a human face. Welt, 19 Mart, https://www.welt.de/kultur/literarischewelt/article206829259/Slavoj-Zizek-on-Corona-Barbarism-with-a-Human-Face.html.