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Lebanon, or the Impossible Revolution

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 1, 1 - 17, 30.06.2022

Öz

Commonly depicted as a textbook example of 'failed state', postwar Lebanon has drawn a cumbersome political and economic trajectory throughout the last three decades. However, neither the perceived inefficiency and corruption of its politico-administrative machinery nor the inability of its élites to engender a modicum of prosperity have managed to jeopardize the foundations whereupon the Lebanese system is anchored, whereas other-apparently more solid-régimes fell down amid public outcry. Unaffected by the winds of change blowing during the Arab Spring, the defining elements of Lebanon's political structure have remained basically unchanged in spite of civil war, foreign occupation, and popular protests. This paper, in analyzing the guidelines of such a political construction, will argue that the consuetudinary power-sharing practices and gradualist approach to change enshrined within the so-called 'National Pact' have turned an apparently weak system into an ironclad construction, where radical transformations and revolutionary upheavals are comparatively hard to achieve.

Kaynakça

  • Marie-Noëlle ABI YAGHI, Myriam CATUSSE, Miriam YOUNES (2017). “From isqat an-nizam at-ta’ifi to the Garbage Crisis movement: political identities and antisectarian movements,” in: R. DI PERI, D. MEIER (eds.). Lebanon facing the Arab Uprisings. Constraints and adaptations. London: Palgrave Pivot, pp. 73-90.
  • Engin D. AKARLI (1993). The Long Peace. Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1920. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  • Denise AMMOUN (2004). Histoire du Liban contemporain, vol. II. Paris: Fayard.
  • Étienne ARCQ, Vincent DE COOREBYTER, Cédric ISTASSE (2012). “Fédéralisme et confédéralisme,” Dossiers du CRISP 79, pp. 11-125, available at: https://www.cairn.info/revue-dossier-du-crisp-2012-1-page-11.htm.
  • John ARMSTRONG (1982). Nations before Nationalism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  • Valérie AZHARI (2016). Le système multiconfessionnel. Une invention libanaise ? Paris: Geuthner.
  • BBC NEWS (2016). “Lebanon: Michel Aoun elected president, ending two-year stalemate,” BBC News, October 31, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37821597.
  • Amer BISAT, Marcel CASSARD, Ishac DIWAN (2021). “Lebanon’s economic crisis. A tragedy in the making,” MEI@75. Available at https://www.mei.edu/publications/lebanons-economic-crisis-tragedy-making.
  • Alexis BLOUET (2020). “Le Conseil constitutionnel dans le système politique libanais: éclairage sur une institution « discrète »,” Revue française de Droit constitutionnel 124/4, pp. 993-1009.
  • Omar BORTOLAZZI (2013). “The Cedar Revolution, youth participation, and youth organization in Lebanon’s post-Intifada. Civic engagement, sectarianism and identity,” Voices on Arab Philanthropy and Civic Engagement. Working paper.
  • Michel CHEBLI (1984). Une histoire du Liban à l’époque des émirs (1635-1841). Beirut: Publications de l’Université Libanaise.
  • Kareem CHEHAYEB, Abby SEWELL (2019). “Why protesters in Lebanon are taking to the streets,” Foreign Policy, November 2. Available at https://www.foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/02/lebanon-protesters-movement-streets-explainer.
  • Martin CHULOV (2016). “Iran ally Michel Aoun elected president of Lebanon,” The Guardian, October 31. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/31/michel-aoun-elected-president-lebanon-iran-tehran-saudi-arabia.
  • Georges CORM (2006). El Líbano contemporáneo. Historia y sociedad. Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra.
  • Patricia CRONE (1994). “Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad period political parties?,” Der Islam 71, pp. 1-57.
  • Robert DAHL (1989). La poliarquía. Participación y oposición. Translated into Spanish by Julia MORENO. Madrid: Tecnos.
  • Sam DALLA (2015). “La constitutionnalisation du confessionnalisme. « De l’exemple libanais »,” Revue française de Droit constitutionnel 103/3, pp. E1-E25.
  • Richard H. DEKMEJIAN (1975). Patterns of political leadership. Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. New York: State University of New York Press.
  • Albert V. DICEY (1979 [1885]). An introduction to the study of the Law of the Constitution. London, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
  • Zachary ELKINS, Tom GINSBURG, James MELTON (2009). The endurance of national constitutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2016). “Lebanon’s consociational politics in the post-2011 Middle East. The paradox of resilience,” in: M. FELSCH, M. WÄHLISCH (eds.), Lebanon and the Arab Uprisings. In the eye of the hurricane. Oxon, New York: Routledge, pp. 21-31.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2014). “Do power-sharing systems behave differently amid regional uprisings? Lebanon in the Arab protest wave,” The Middle East Journal 68/4, pp. 505-520.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2011). “Lebanon against the backdrop of the 2011 Arab Uprisings: Which revolution in sight?,” New Global Studies 5/1, pp. 1-11.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2007). Democracy and power-sharing in stormy weather. The case of Lebanon. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
  • Lina FARELLI (2019). “Au Liban, une ville interdit aux Musulmans d’acheter ou de louer une propriété aux Chrétiens,” Saphir News, June 27. Available at: https://www.saphirnews.com/Au-Liban-une-ville-interdit-aux-musulmans-d-acheter-ou-de-louer-une-propriete-aux-chretiens_a26479.html.
  • Maximilian FELSCH (2016). “The rise of Christian nationalism in Lebanon,” in: M. FELSCH, M. WÄHLISCH (eds.), Lebanon and the Arab uprisings. In the eye of the hurricane. London, New York: Routledge, pp. 70-86.
  • Pierre GANNAGÉ (2015). Le Conseil constitutionnel libanais. Beirut: CEDROMA.
  • Vincent GEISSER (2017). ““The people want the army”: Is the Lebanese military an exception to the crisis of the state?,” in: R. DI PERI, D. MEIER (eds.). Lebanon facing the Arab Uprisings. Constraints and adaptations. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 93-113.
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  • Albert H. HOURANI (1981). The emergence of the modern Middle East. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
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Lebanon, or the Impossible Revolution

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 1, 1 - 17, 30.06.2022

Öz

Genellikle ders kitaplarında 'başarısız devlet' olarak gösterilen savaş sonrası Lübnan, son otuz yılda hantal bir siyasi ve ekonomik yörünge çizdi. Bununla birlikte, ne siyasi-idari mekanizmasının algılanan verimsizliği ve yozlaşması ne de seçkinlerinin bir nebze de olsa refah artışına katkısının olmaması, rejim gibi sağlam olduğu düşünülen unsurların halkın tepkisi altında yıkılırken Lübnan sisteminin demirlediği vakıfları tehlikeye atmayı başaramadı. Arap Baharı sırasında esen değişim rüzgarlarından etkilenmeyen Lübnan'ın siyasi yapısının belirleyici unsurları, iç savaşa, yabancı işgaline ve halk protestolarına rağmen temelde değişmeden kaldı.Bu makale, böyle bir siyasi yapının ana hatlarını analiz ederken, sözde 'Ulusal Pakt' içinde yer alan ardışık güç paylaşımı uygulamalarının ve kademeli değişim yaklaşımının, radikal dönüşümlerin ve devrimci ayaklannmaların başarılmasının oldukça zor olduğu bir ortamda nasıl görünüşte zayıf bir sistemi sağlam bir yapıya dönüştürdüğünü tartışmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Marie-Noëlle ABI YAGHI, Myriam CATUSSE, Miriam YOUNES (2017). “From isqat an-nizam at-ta’ifi to the Garbage Crisis movement: political identities and antisectarian movements,” in: R. DI PERI, D. MEIER (eds.). Lebanon facing the Arab Uprisings. Constraints and adaptations. London: Palgrave Pivot, pp. 73-90.
  • Engin D. AKARLI (1993). The Long Peace. Ottoman Lebanon, 1861-1920. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  • Denise AMMOUN (2004). Histoire du Liban contemporain, vol. II. Paris: Fayard.
  • Étienne ARCQ, Vincent DE COOREBYTER, Cédric ISTASSE (2012). “Fédéralisme et confédéralisme,” Dossiers du CRISP 79, pp. 11-125, available at: https://www.cairn.info/revue-dossier-du-crisp-2012-1-page-11.htm.
  • John ARMSTRONG (1982). Nations before Nationalism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  • Valérie AZHARI (2016). Le système multiconfessionnel. Une invention libanaise ? Paris: Geuthner.
  • BBC NEWS (2016). “Lebanon: Michel Aoun elected president, ending two-year stalemate,” BBC News, October 31, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37821597.
  • Amer BISAT, Marcel CASSARD, Ishac DIWAN (2021). “Lebanon’s economic crisis. A tragedy in the making,” MEI@75. Available at https://www.mei.edu/publications/lebanons-economic-crisis-tragedy-making.
  • Alexis BLOUET (2020). “Le Conseil constitutionnel dans le système politique libanais: éclairage sur une institution « discrète »,” Revue française de Droit constitutionnel 124/4, pp. 993-1009.
  • Omar BORTOLAZZI (2013). “The Cedar Revolution, youth participation, and youth organization in Lebanon’s post-Intifada. Civic engagement, sectarianism and identity,” Voices on Arab Philanthropy and Civic Engagement. Working paper.
  • Michel CHEBLI (1984). Une histoire du Liban à l’époque des émirs (1635-1841). Beirut: Publications de l’Université Libanaise.
  • Kareem CHEHAYEB, Abby SEWELL (2019). “Why protesters in Lebanon are taking to the streets,” Foreign Policy, November 2. Available at https://www.foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/02/lebanon-protesters-movement-streets-explainer.
  • Martin CHULOV (2016). “Iran ally Michel Aoun elected president of Lebanon,” The Guardian, October 31. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/31/michel-aoun-elected-president-lebanon-iran-tehran-saudi-arabia.
  • Georges CORM (2006). El Líbano contemporáneo. Historia y sociedad. Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra.
  • Patricia CRONE (1994). “Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad period political parties?,” Der Islam 71, pp. 1-57.
  • Robert DAHL (1989). La poliarquía. Participación y oposición. Translated into Spanish by Julia MORENO. Madrid: Tecnos.
  • Sam DALLA (2015). “La constitutionnalisation du confessionnalisme. « De l’exemple libanais »,” Revue française de Droit constitutionnel 103/3, pp. E1-E25.
  • Richard H. DEKMEJIAN (1975). Patterns of political leadership. Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. New York: State University of New York Press.
  • Albert V. DICEY (1979 [1885]). An introduction to the study of the Law of the Constitution. London, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
  • Zachary ELKINS, Tom GINSBURG, James MELTON (2009). The endurance of national constitutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2016). “Lebanon’s consociational politics in the post-2011 Middle East. The paradox of resilience,” in: M. FELSCH, M. WÄHLISCH (eds.), Lebanon and the Arab Uprisings. In the eye of the hurricane. Oxon, New York: Routledge, pp. 21-31.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2014). “Do power-sharing systems behave differently amid regional uprisings? Lebanon in the Arab protest wave,” The Middle East Journal 68/4, pp. 505-520.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2011). “Lebanon against the backdrop of the 2011 Arab Uprisings: Which revolution in sight?,” New Global Studies 5/1, pp. 1-11.
  • Tamirace FAKHOURY (2007). Democracy and power-sharing in stormy weather. The case of Lebanon. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
  • Lina FARELLI (2019). “Au Liban, une ville interdit aux Musulmans d’acheter ou de louer une propriété aux Chrétiens,” Saphir News, June 27. Available at: https://www.saphirnews.com/Au-Liban-une-ville-interdit-aux-musulmans-d-acheter-ou-de-louer-une-propriete-aux-chretiens_a26479.html.
  • Maximilian FELSCH (2016). “The rise of Christian nationalism in Lebanon,” in: M. FELSCH, M. WÄHLISCH (eds.), Lebanon and the Arab uprisings. In the eye of the hurricane. London, New York: Routledge, pp. 70-86.
  • Pierre GANNAGÉ (2015). Le Conseil constitutionnel libanais. Beirut: CEDROMA.
  • Vincent GEISSER (2017). ““The people want the army”: Is the Lebanese military an exception to the crisis of the state?,” in: R. DI PERI, D. MEIER (eds.). Lebanon facing the Arab Uprisings. Constraints and adaptations. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 93-113.
  • Gert J. GELLING (2012). The Lebanese exception. Why Lebanon has been immune to the Arab Spring. BPhil. thesis: Utrecht University.
  • Hans GESER (1997). “The persistence of confessional political cultures in Switzerland: some puzzling empirical evidence from local parties,” Swiss Political Science Review 3/2, pp. 1-29.
  • Amaia GOENAGA, Elvira SÁNCHEZ (2009). “Élites, poder y cambio politico en el Líbano de la II República,” in: F. IZQUIERDO BRICH (ed.), Poder y regímenes en el mundo árabe contemporáneo. Barcelona: Fundació CIDOB, pp. 341-376.
  • Borja W. GONZÁLEZ FERNÁNDEZ (2018). Ta’ifah or Nation? The Lebanese Maronite community in the twentieth century, 1918-1975. PhD. thesis: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
  • Iliya HARIK (1980). “Voting participation and political integration in Lebanon, 1943-1974,” Middle Eastern Studies 16/1, pp. 27-48.
  • Alistair HARRIS (2008). “Half full or half empty. Assessing prospects for peace in Lebanon,” USIPeace Briefing. Available at https://www.usip.org.
  • William HARRIS (2015). Lebanon. A history, 600-2011, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Philip K. HITTI (1965). A short history of Lebanon. New York: St. Martin’s Press; London, Melbourne, Toronto: Macmillan.
  • Albert H. HOURANI (1981). The emergence of the modern Middle East. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  • Joseph KÉCHICHIAN (2020). “Partition is the only solution to Lebanon’s woes,” Foreign Policy, September 18. Available at https://www.foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/18/partition-is-the-only-solution-to-lebanons-woes/.
  • Antoine KHAIR (1973). Le Moutaçarrifat du Mont-Liban. Beirut: Publications de l’Université Libanaise.
  • Samir KHALAF (2002). Civil and uncivil violence in Lebanon. A history of the internationalization of communal conflict. New York, Chichester: Columbia University Press.
  • Farid EL-KHAZEN (1991). The communal pact of national identities. The making and politics of the 1943 National Pact. Oxford: The Centre for Lebanese Studies.
  • Ulrich KLÖTI (1994). “Reform trends in Swiss government,” Papers on Parliament 23. Available at https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop23/c02.
  • Are KNUDSEN, Michael KERR (2012). Lebanon after the Cedar Revolution. London: C. Hurst & Co.
  • Ersun N. KURTULUS (2009). “‘The Cedar Revolution’: Lebanese independence and the question of collective self-determination,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 36/2, pp. 195-214.
  • Jenny LAFOND (2021). “Liban: le patriarche maronite, Mgr. Béchara Raï se tourne vers l’ONU,” La Croix, February 28. Available at https://www.la-croix.com/Monde/Liban-patriarche-maronite-Mgr-Bechara-Rai-tourne-vers-lONU-2021-02-28-1201143024.
  • Arend LIJPHART (1977). Democracy in plural societies. A comparative exploration. New Haven, London: Yale University Press.
  • Wolf LINDER, Sean MUELLER (2021). Swiss democracy. Possible solutions to conflict in multicultural societies. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Stéphane MALSAGNE (2014). “Présentation,” in: Louis-Joseph LEBRET, Chronique de la construction d’un état. Paris: Geuthner.
  • Antoine N. MESSARRA (1984). Théorie générale du système politique libanais. Essai comparé sur les fondements d’évolution d’un système consensuel de gouvernement. Paris: Cariscript.
  • Elias MUHANNA (2016). “Aoun and the future,” Qifa Nabki, https://www.qifanabki.com/2016/11/22/aoun-and-the-future/.
  • Elias MUHANNA (2011). “Orthodox Gathering proposal,” Qifa Nabki, https://www.qifanabki.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/orthodox-gathering-proposal.pdf.
  • Samia NAKHOUL, Tom PERRY (2016). “Lebanon’s Aoun wins presidency to end two year political vacuum,” Reuters, October 31. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-lebanon-presidency-session-idUSKBN12V102.
  • NEWSDESK LIBNANEWS (2020). “Liban: le patriarche présente son projet de neutralité,” Libananews, August 17. Available at: https://www.libnanews.com/liban-le-patriarche-presente-son-projet-de-neutralite.
  • Didier OSTERMANN (2020). Le role de l’Église Maronite dans la construction du Liban. 1500 ans d’histoire, du Ve au XXe siècle. Geneva: Globalethics.net.
  • Benigno PENDÁS GARCÍA (2014). “La ley contra el Derecho. Reflexiones sobre la calidad de las normas,” ENSXXI nº 54. Available at: https://www.elnotario.es/index.php/hemeroteca/revista-54/3701-la-ley-contra-el-derecho-reflexiones-sobre-la-calidad-de-las-normas.
  • Edmond RABBATH (1985). La Constitution libanaise. Origines, textes, commentaires. Beirut: Publications de l’Université Libanaise.
  • Mounir RABIH (2021). “Entre Bkerké et le Hezbollah, une confrontation qui ne dit pas (encore) son nom,” L’Orient-Le Jour, February 26. Available at https://www.lorientlejour.com/article/1253315/entre-bkerke-et-le-hezbollah-une-confrontation-qui-ne-dit-pas-encore-son-nom.html.
  • Bechara RAÏ, Isabelle DILLMANN (2016). Au cœur du chaos. La résistance d’un Chrétien en Orient. Paris: Éditions Albin Michel.
  • Magnus RANSTORP (2016). The role of Hizbullah in the Syrian conflict, in: M. WÄHLISCH, M. FELSCH (eds.), op. cit., pp. 32-49.
  • Stephan ROSINY (2018). “Lebanon: The predecessor of the Arab Spring? The youth is skeptical but not desperate,” FES MENA Youth Study: Country Analysis Lebanon. Available at: https://www.library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/14985.pdf.
  • Ghassan SALAME (1988). “Is a Lebanese foreign policy possible?,” in: H. BARAKAT (ed.), Toward a viable Lebanon. Washington, D.C.: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University; London, Sydney: Croom Helm.
  • Imad SALAMEY (2009). “Failing consociationalism in Lebanon and integrative options,” International Journal of Peace Studies 14/2, pp. 83-105.
  • Kamal S. SALIBI (2011 [1988]). A house of many mansions. The history of Lebanon reconsidered. London, New York: I.B. Tauris.
  • David SCHENKER (2008). “Lebanese crisis ends: Hizballah victory or temporary truce?,” Washington Institute Policy Analysis/Policy Watch 1375. Available at: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/lebanese-crisis-ends-hizballah-victory-or-temporary-truce.
  • Bishara N. SHARBEL (2008). “The Doha Agreement: A truce of fragile political wills,” The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research Reports & Analysis. Available at: www.ecssr.ae/en/reports_analysis/the-doha-agreement-a-truce-of-fragile-political-wills/.
  • Nadim SHEHADI (2021). “Failed state or battered state – the narratives dividing Lebanon,” Arab News, March 21. Available at: https://www.arabnews.com/node/1829371.
  • Nadim SHEHADI (2020). “Lebanon is paying the price of its dysfunctional politics,” Chatham House. Available at: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/02/lebanon-paying-cost-its-dysfunctional-politics.
  • Anthony D. SMITH (1988). The ethnic origins of nations. Malden, Oxford, Carlton: Blackwell Publishing.
  • TA’IF AGREEMENT (1989). Available at: https://www.un.int/lebanon/sites/www.un.int/files/Lebanon/the_taif_agreement_english_version_pdf.
  • Tewfiq TOUMA (1986). Paysans et institutions féodales chez les Druses et les Maronites du Liban du XVIIIe siècle à 1914, vol. 1. Beirut: Publications de l’Université Libanaise.
  • Fawwaz TRABOULSI (2007). A history of modern Lebanon. London, Ann Arbor: Pluto Press.
  • Ferhat TUTKAL (2021). “Lebanon: an economy sliding into devastation,” Daily Sabah, March 30. Available at: https://www.dailysabah.com/opinion/op-ed/lebanon-an-economy-sliding-into-devastation.
  • UNITED NATIONS (2012). Identical letters dated 13 June 2012 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Lebanon to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, A/66/849-S/2012/477.
  • UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (2008). Letter dated 22 May 2008 from the Permanent Observer of the League of Arab States to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, available at: https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/{65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9}/LebanonS2008392.pdf.
  • Martin WÄHLISCH (2017). “The Lebanese National Dialogue. Past and present experience of consensus-building,” National Dialogue Handbook Case Study. Berlin: Berghof Foundation, p. 10. Available at https://www.berghof-foundation.org/publications/national-dialogue-handbook.
  • Henrietta WILKINS (2016). Lebanese Foreign Policy and the Arab Uprisings, in: M. WÄHLISCH, M. FELSCH (eds.), op. cit., pp. 135-155.
  • WORLD BANK (2021). Lebanon: Monthly Report. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/lebanon/overview.
  • VOLTAIRE NETWORK (2012). “I‘lan Ba‘abda al-sadir ‘an “Ha’iyat al-hiwar al-watani” bi-tarikh 11 haziran/yuniyya 2012,” Voltairenet.org. Available at: https://www.voltairenet.org/article181967.html.
  • Stacey P. YADAV (2008). “Lebanon’s post-Doha political theater,” Middle East Reports. Available at: https://merip.org/2008/07/lebanons-post-doha-political-theater/.
  • Hussein YASSINE (2021). ““Failed State” explained, and what it could mean for Lebanon,” The961, May 5. Available at: https://www.the961.com/failed-state-explained-lebanon.
  • Vivian YEE (2019). “Lebanon protests unites sects in demanding new government,” New York Times, October 23. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/23/world/middleeast/lebanon-protests.html.
  • Eyal ZISSER (2006). “Lebanon – The Cedar Revolution – Between continuity and change,” Orient 47/4, pp. 460-483.
Toplam 82 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Siyaset Bilimi
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Borja W. Gonzalez Fernandez 0000-0003-3542-0534

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Haziran 2022
Gönderilme Tarihi 28 Kasım 2021
Kabul Tarihi 25 Ocak 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Cilt: 4 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Gonzalez Fernandez, B. W. (2022). Lebanon, or the Impossible Revolution. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(1), 1-17.
Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı (CC BY NC) ile lisanslanmıştır.