The Effect of Education and Health as Fundamentals of Human Capital on Global Competition: A Panel Data Analysis on OECD Countries
Yıl 2023,
Cilt: 18 Sayı: 3, 766 - 791, 01.12.2023
Kadir Sain
,
Kurtuluş Bozkurt
Öz
The aim of the current study is to analyze the effect of education and health as the main elements of human capital on global competition in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries using the Granger Panel Causality Test. Accordingly, in the application part of the study, with the data obtained from the World Economic Forum (WEF), the World Bank (WB), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) databases, a panel data set was established for 18 OECD countries for which healthy data could be reached for the period of 2004-2018. As a result of the analysis, a causality relationship was determined between each variable representing education and health as the basic elements of human capital and the global competition for short term. When the results of the Westerlund (2007) panel cointegration test were examined, it was seen that there is a long-term relationship between the Global Competitiveness Index (gci) variable and all the other variables except for variables h1 and h2.
Kaynakça
- Aghion, P.; Howitt, P. (1992), “A model of growth through creative destruction”, Econometrica, 60(2): 323-351. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599
- Altay, A.; Pazarlıoğlu, M. V. (2007), “Uluslararası rekabet gücünde beşeri sermaye: ekonometrik yaklaşım”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Karaman İ. İ. B. F. Dergisi, 12, 96-108.
- Atik, İ. (2018), “Nitelikli işgücü için etkin mesleki eğitim konusuna çözüm olarak fen, teknoloji, mühendislik, matematik (FTMM) eğitimi”, Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi, 8(2): 254-263.
- Awan, A. G. (2012), “Diverging trends of human capital in BRIC countries”, International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2(12): 2195-2219.
- Barro, R. J. (1990), “Government spending in a simple model of endogenous growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 98(5): 103-125.
- Becker, G. S. (1994), “Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education”, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Berkman, K. (2008), “Beşeri sermayenin ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkisi: Türkiye örneği”, Master’s Thesis.
- Blomquist, J.; Westerlund, J. (2013), “Testing slope homogeneity in large panels with serial correlation”, Economics Letters, 121(3): 374-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.09.012
- Bloom, D.; Canning, D. (2003), “The health and poverty of nations: From theory to practice”, Journal of Human Development, 4(1): 47-71.
- Bozkurt, K.; Armutçuoğlu Tekin, H.; Can Ergün, Z. (2021), “An investigation of demand and exchange rate shocks in the tourism sector”, Applied Economic Analysis, 29(86): 171-188.
- Breusch, T. S.; Pagan A. R. (1980), “The lagrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification tests in econometrics”, The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1): 239-253. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297111
- Czajkowski, Z. (2014), “Human Capital and Innovation Determinants of Competitiveness”, (Eds., M. A. Weresa), Innovation, Human Capital and Trade Competitiveness: How Are They Connected and Why Do They Matter?, Switzerland: Springer: 105-157.
- D’Autume, A.; Michel, P. (1993), “Endogenous growth in Arrow’s learning by doing model”, European Economic Review, 37(6): 1175-1184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(93)90128-W
- Denison, E. F. (1962), “Education, economic growth and gaps in information”, Journal of Political Economy, 70(5): 124-128.
- Dumitrescu, E. I.; Hurlin, C. (2012), “Testing for granger non-causality in heterogeneous panels”, Economic Modelling, 29(4): 1450-1460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.02.014
- Durusoy, S. (2007), “Sanayi toplumundan bilgi toplumuna: beşeri sermayeye ihtiyaç artarken”, (Eds., O. Karadeniz), Avrupa birliği yolunda Türkiye’de eğitim ve beşeri sermaye, Ankara: Gazi Kitapevi: 1-17.
- Ercan, N. Y. (2002), “İçsel büyüme teorisi: Genel bir bakış”, Planlama Dergisi, Özel Sayı (DPT’nin Kuruluşunun 42. Yılı): 129-138.
- Eser, K.; Ekiz Gökmen, Ç. (2009), “Beşeri sermayenin ekonomik gelişme üzerindeki etkileri: dünya deneyimi ve Türkiye üzerine gözlemler”, Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 1(2): 41-56.
- Gökçen, B. (2006), “Beşeri Sermayenin iktisadi gelişmedeki rolü ve önemi: Adana iline ilişkin bir uygulama”, Master’s Thesis.
- Göktaş, P.; Pekmezci, A.; Bozkurt, K. (2018), “Ekonometrik serilerde uzun dönem eşbütünleşme ve kısa dönem nedensellik ilişkileri”, Ankara: Gazi Kitapevi.
- Grossman, G. M.; Helpman, E. (1991), “Innovation and growth in global economy”, Cambridge: MIT Press.
- Gümüş, S. (2004), “Beşeri sermaye ve ekonomik kalkınma: Türkiye üzerine ekonometrik bir analiz (1960-2002)”, Doctoral Thesis.
- Herrin, A. N. (2000), “Health and demographic transitions and economic growth in East Asian countries”, (Eds., J. L. H. Tan), Human capital formation as an engine of growth: The East Asian experience, Singapore: ISEAS: 79-172.
- İlkay, S. Ç. (2019), “Beşeri sermaye ile uluslararası rekabet gücü arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye ve seçilmiş diğer G20 ülkeleri üzerine bir analiz”, Doctoral Thesis.
- Jones, C. I. (1996), “Human capital, ideas, and economic growth”, Paper presented at the VIII Villa Mondragone International Economic Seminar on Finance, Research, Education, and Growth, Rome, Italy. https://web.stanford.edu/~chadj/Rome100.pdf, (Accessed: 13.12.2022).
- Kelly, T. (1997), “Public expenditures and growth”, The Journal of Development Studies, 34(1): 60-84.
- Keskin, A. (2011), “Ekonomik kalkınmada beşeri sermayenin rolü ve Türkiye”, Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 25(3-4): 125-153.
- Krstić, M.; Filipe, J. A.; Chavaglia, A. (2020), “Higher education as a determinant of the competitiveness and sustainable development of an economy”, Sustainability, 12(16): 6607. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166607
- Lucas, R. E. (1988), “On the mechanics of economic development”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 22: 3-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(88)90168-7
- Mathur, V. J. (1999), “Human capital-based strategy for regional economic development”, Economic Development Quarterly, 13(3): 203-216. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124249901300301
- Odyakmaz, N. (2000), “Büyüme modelleri çerçevesinde yeni ekonominin makro ekonomi üzerindeki etkileri”, Ankara: DTM Yayınları.
- OECD (1998), “Human capital investment-an international comparison”, Paris: OECD.
- OECD (2001), “The well-being of nations-the role of human and social capital”, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264189515en.pdfexpires=1643140505&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=EDB92D04AAD6AE3932901C5FD06994CE, (Accessed: 17.10. 2022).
- Öz, B.; Taban, S.; Kar, M. (2008), “Kümeleme analizi ile Türkiye ve AB ülkelerinin beşeri sermaye göstergeleri açısından karşılaştırılması”, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(1): 1-30.
- Pedroni, P. (1999), “Critical Values for Cointegration Tests in Heterogeneous Panels with Multiple Regressors”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 653-670.
- Pedroni, P. (2004), “Panel cointegration: asymptotic and finite sample properties of pooled time series tests with an application to the ppp hypothesis”, Econometric Theory, 20 (3), 597-625.
- Pesaran, M.H. (2004), “General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels”, Cesifo Working Paper, No: 1229, 1-40.
- Pesaran, M. H. (2007), “A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2): 265-312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951
- Pesaran, M. H.; Yamagata, T. (2008), “Testing slope homogeneity in large panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 142(1): 50-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.010
- Rebelo, S. (1991), “Long-run policy analysis and long-run growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 99(3): 500-521.
- Reda, M. (2012), “Enhancing Egypt’s competitiveness: Education, innovation and labor”, Cairo: Egyptian Center for Economic Studies.
- Romer, P. M. (1986), “Increasing returns and long-run growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 94(5): 1002-1037.
- Romer, P. M. (1990), “Endogenous technological change”, Journal of Political Economy, 98(5): 71-102.
- Sart, G. (2018), “OECD ülkelerinde küresel rekabet gücü ve yüksek öğrenimin rolü”, Ankara: Nobel Yayınları.
- Schultz, T. W. (1960), “Capital formation by education. Journal of Political Economy”, 68(6): 571-583.
- Schultz, T. W. (1961), “Investment in human capital”, The American Economic Review, 51(1): 1-17.
- Schultz, T. W. (1971), “Investment in human capital: The role of education and of research”, New York: The Free.
- Seçgin, Ö. (2008), “Beşeri sermayede eğitimin rolü: Karaman ilinde bir uygulama”, Master’s Thesis.
- Taban, K.; Kar, M. (2006), “Beşeri sermaye ve ekonomik büyüme: Nedensellik analizi (1969-2001)”, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6(1): 159-182.
- Thurow, L. C. (1970), “Investment in human capital”, California: Wadworth.
- Tijanic, L.; Obadic, A. (2015), “Can we boost the competitiveness of the European Union through reducing regional ınequalities in human capital?”, Engineering Economics, 26(3): 295-305.
- Tuna, Y.; Yumuşak, İ. G. (2002), “Kalkınmışlık göstergesi olarak beşeri kalkınma indeksi ve Türkiye üzerine bir değerlendirme”, İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası, 52(1): 1-26.
- Tunalı, H. N.; Yılmaz, A. (2016), “Büyüme, beşeri sermaye ve kalkınma ilişkisi: OECD ülkelerinin ekonometrik bir incelemesi”, Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(4): 295-318.
- UNDP (2019), “Human development report 2019. beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: inequalities in human development in the 21 st century”, http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf, (Accessed: 15.09.2022).
- UNESCO (2022), “Demographic and socio-economic”, http://data.uis.unesco.org/, (Accessed: 13.09.2022).
WB (2020). The human capital index 2020 update: Human capital in the time of covid-19. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34432 (accessed October 13, 2022).
- WB (2022a), “Education statistics”, https://databank.worldbank.org/databases/education, (Accessed: 23.12.2022).
- WB (2022b), “World development indicators”, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators (Accessed: 18.12.2022).
- WEF (2017), “Global human capital index-2017”, http://reports.weforum.org/global-human-capital-report-2017/sub-indexes/, (Accessed: 25.11.2022).
- WEF (2018), “The global competitiveness report 2018”, https://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2018/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2018.pdf, (Accessed: 13.10. 2022).
- WEF (2022), “Reports”, https://www.weforum.org/reports, (Accessed 11.09. 2022).
- Weresa, M. A. (2017). “Innovation, human capital and competitiveness in Central and Eastern Europe with regard to the challenges of a digital economy”, https://www.etui.org/sites/default/files/Chapter%203_5.pdf, (Accessed: 10.04.2023).
- Westerlund, J. (2007), “Testing for Error Correction in Panel Data”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 69 (6), 709-748.
- WHO (2022), “Global health expenditure database”, https://apps.who.int/nha/database/Select/Indicators/en, (Accessed: 13.08.2022).
- Wyszkowska-Kuna, J. (2017), “The role of intermediate demand and technology for international competitiveness of the KIBS sector: evidence from European Union Countries”, The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 26(7): 777-800.
- Yaylalı, M.; Lebe, F. (2011), “Beşeri sermaye ile iktisadi büyüme arasındaki ilişkisinin ampirik analizi”, Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 1: 23-51.
Beşerî Sermaye Temel Unsurları Olarak Eğitim ve Sağlığın Küresel Rekabete Etkisi: OECD Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Panel Veri Analizi
Yıl 2023,
Cilt: 18 Sayı: 3, 766 - 791, 01.12.2023
Kadir Sain
,
Kurtuluş Bozkurt
Öz
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Ekonomik İşbirliği ve Kalkınma Örgütü (OECD) ülkelerinde beşeri sermaye temel unsurları olarak eğitim ve sağlığın küresel rekabete etkisini Granger Panel Nedensellik Testi ile analiz etmektir. Çalışmanın uygulama kısmında Dünya Ekonomik Forumu (World Economic Forum [WEF]), Dünya Bankası (World Bank [WB]), Birleşmiş Milletler Eğitim, Bilim ve Kültür Örgütü (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]) ve Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (World Health Organization [WHO]) veri tabanların elde edilen veriler ile 2004-2018 dönemini kapsayan ve sağlıklı verilerine ulaşılan 18 OECD ülkesi için panel veri seti kurulmuştur. Analiz sonucunda beşerî sermaye temel unsurları olarak eğitim ve sağlığı temsil eden her bir değişken ile küresel rekabet arasında kısa dönem için bir ilişkinin olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Westernlund (2007) Panel Eşbütünleşme testi sonuçlarına bakıldığında ise h1 ve h2 değişkeni hariç diğer tüm değişkenler ile gci; yani küresel rekabet endeksi değişkeni arasında uzun dönemli bir ilişkini olduğu görülmektedir.
Kaynakça
- Aghion, P.; Howitt, P. (1992), “A model of growth through creative destruction”, Econometrica, 60(2): 323-351. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599
- Altay, A.; Pazarlıoğlu, M. V. (2007), “Uluslararası rekabet gücünde beşeri sermaye: ekonometrik yaklaşım”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Karaman İ. İ. B. F. Dergisi, 12, 96-108.
- Atik, İ. (2018), “Nitelikli işgücü için etkin mesleki eğitim konusuna çözüm olarak fen, teknoloji, mühendislik, matematik (FTMM) eğitimi”, Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi, 8(2): 254-263.
- Awan, A. G. (2012), “Diverging trends of human capital in BRIC countries”, International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2(12): 2195-2219.
- Barro, R. J. (1990), “Government spending in a simple model of endogenous growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 98(5): 103-125.
- Becker, G. S. (1994), “Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education”, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Berkman, K. (2008), “Beşeri sermayenin ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkisi: Türkiye örneği”, Master’s Thesis.
- Blomquist, J.; Westerlund, J. (2013), “Testing slope homogeneity in large panels with serial correlation”, Economics Letters, 121(3): 374-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.09.012
- Bloom, D.; Canning, D. (2003), “The health and poverty of nations: From theory to practice”, Journal of Human Development, 4(1): 47-71.
- Bozkurt, K.; Armutçuoğlu Tekin, H.; Can Ergün, Z. (2021), “An investigation of demand and exchange rate shocks in the tourism sector”, Applied Economic Analysis, 29(86): 171-188.
- Breusch, T. S.; Pagan A. R. (1980), “The lagrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification tests in econometrics”, The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1): 239-253. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297111
- Czajkowski, Z. (2014), “Human Capital and Innovation Determinants of Competitiveness”, (Eds., M. A. Weresa), Innovation, Human Capital and Trade Competitiveness: How Are They Connected and Why Do They Matter?, Switzerland: Springer: 105-157.
- D’Autume, A.; Michel, P. (1993), “Endogenous growth in Arrow’s learning by doing model”, European Economic Review, 37(6): 1175-1184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(93)90128-W
- Denison, E. F. (1962), “Education, economic growth and gaps in information”, Journal of Political Economy, 70(5): 124-128.
- Dumitrescu, E. I.; Hurlin, C. (2012), “Testing for granger non-causality in heterogeneous panels”, Economic Modelling, 29(4): 1450-1460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.02.014
- Durusoy, S. (2007), “Sanayi toplumundan bilgi toplumuna: beşeri sermayeye ihtiyaç artarken”, (Eds., O. Karadeniz), Avrupa birliği yolunda Türkiye’de eğitim ve beşeri sermaye, Ankara: Gazi Kitapevi: 1-17.
- Ercan, N. Y. (2002), “İçsel büyüme teorisi: Genel bir bakış”, Planlama Dergisi, Özel Sayı (DPT’nin Kuruluşunun 42. Yılı): 129-138.
- Eser, K.; Ekiz Gökmen, Ç. (2009), “Beşeri sermayenin ekonomik gelişme üzerindeki etkileri: dünya deneyimi ve Türkiye üzerine gözlemler”, Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 1(2): 41-56.
- Gökçen, B. (2006), “Beşeri Sermayenin iktisadi gelişmedeki rolü ve önemi: Adana iline ilişkin bir uygulama”, Master’s Thesis.
- Göktaş, P.; Pekmezci, A.; Bozkurt, K. (2018), “Ekonometrik serilerde uzun dönem eşbütünleşme ve kısa dönem nedensellik ilişkileri”, Ankara: Gazi Kitapevi.
- Grossman, G. M.; Helpman, E. (1991), “Innovation and growth in global economy”, Cambridge: MIT Press.
- Gümüş, S. (2004), “Beşeri sermaye ve ekonomik kalkınma: Türkiye üzerine ekonometrik bir analiz (1960-2002)”, Doctoral Thesis.
- Herrin, A. N. (2000), “Health and demographic transitions and economic growth in East Asian countries”, (Eds., J. L. H. Tan), Human capital formation as an engine of growth: The East Asian experience, Singapore: ISEAS: 79-172.
- İlkay, S. Ç. (2019), “Beşeri sermaye ile uluslararası rekabet gücü arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye ve seçilmiş diğer G20 ülkeleri üzerine bir analiz”, Doctoral Thesis.
- Jones, C. I. (1996), “Human capital, ideas, and economic growth”, Paper presented at the VIII Villa Mondragone International Economic Seminar on Finance, Research, Education, and Growth, Rome, Italy. https://web.stanford.edu/~chadj/Rome100.pdf, (Accessed: 13.12.2022).
- Kelly, T. (1997), “Public expenditures and growth”, The Journal of Development Studies, 34(1): 60-84.
- Keskin, A. (2011), “Ekonomik kalkınmada beşeri sermayenin rolü ve Türkiye”, Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 25(3-4): 125-153.
- Krstić, M.; Filipe, J. A.; Chavaglia, A. (2020), “Higher education as a determinant of the competitiveness and sustainable development of an economy”, Sustainability, 12(16): 6607. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166607
- Lucas, R. E. (1988), “On the mechanics of economic development”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 22: 3-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(88)90168-7
- Mathur, V. J. (1999), “Human capital-based strategy for regional economic development”, Economic Development Quarterly, 13(3): 203-216. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124249901300301
- Odyakmaz, N. (2000), “Büyüme modelleri çerçevesinde yeni ekonominin makro ekonomi üzerindeki etkileri”, Ankara: DTM Yayınları.
- OECD (1998), “Human capital investment-an international comparison”, Paris: OECD.
- OECD (2001), “The well-being of nations-the role of human and social capital”, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264189515en.pdfexpires=1643140505&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=EDB92D04AAD6AE3932901C5FD06994CE, (Accessed: 17.10. 2022).
- Öz, B.; Taban, S.; Kar, M. (2008), “Kümeleme analizi ile Türkiye ve AB ülkelerinin beşeri sermaye göstergeleri açısından karşılaştırılması”, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(1): 1-30.
- Pedroni, P. (1999), “Critical Values for Cointegration Tests in Heterogeneous Panels with Multiple Regressors”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 653-670.
- Pedroni, P. (2004), “Panel cointegration: asymptotic and finite sample properties of pooled time series tests with an application to the ppp hypothesis”, Econometric Theory, 20 (3), 597-625.
- Pesaran, M.H. (2004), “General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels”, Cesifo Working Paper, No: 1229, 1-40.
- Pesaran, M. H. (2007), “A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2): 265-312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951
- Pesaran, M. H.; Yamagata, T. (2008), “Testing slope homogeneity in large panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 142(1): 50-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.010
- Rebelo, S. (1991), “Long-run policy analysis and long-run growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 99(3): 500-521.
- Reda, M. (2012), “Enhancing Egypt’s competitiveness: Education, innovation and labor”, Cairo: Egyptian Center for Economic Studies.
- Romer, P. M. (1986), “Increasing returns and long-run growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 94(5): 1002-1037.
- Romer, P. M. (1990), “Endogenous technological change”, Journal of Political Economy, 98(5): 71-102.
- Sart, G. (2018), “OECD ülkelerinde küresel rekabet gücü ve yüksek öğrenimin rolü”, Ankara: Nobel Yayınları.
- Schultz, T. W. (1960), “Capital formation by education. Journal of Political Economy”, 68(6): 571-583.
- Schultz, T. W. (1961), “Investment in human capital”, The American Economic Review, 51(1): 1-17.
- Schultz, T. W. (1971), “Investment in human capital: The role of education and of research”, New York: The Free.
- Seçgin, Ö. (2008), “Beşeri sermayede eğitimin rolü: Karaman ilinde bir uygulama”, Master’s Thesis.
- Taban, K.; Kar, M. (2006), “Beşeri sermaye ve ekonomik büyüme: Nedensellik analizi (1969-2001)”, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6(1): 159-182.
- Thurow, L. C. (1970), “Investment in human capital”, California: Wadworth.
- Tijanic, L.; Obadic, A. (2015), “Can we boost the competitiveness of the European Union through reducing regional ınequalities in human capital?”, Engineering Economics, 26(3): 295-305.
- Tuna, Y.; Yumuşak, İ. G. (2002), “Kalkınmışlık göstergesi olarak beşeri kalkınma indeksi ve Türkiye üzerine bir değerlendirme”, İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası, 52(1): 1-26.
- Tunalı, H. N.; Yılmaz, A. (2016), “Büyüme, beşeri sermaye ve kalkınma ilişkisi: OECD ülkelerinin ekonometrik bir incelemesi”, Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14(4): 295-318.
- UNDP (2019), “Human development report 2019. beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: inequalities in human development in the 21 st century”, http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf, (Accessed: 15.09.2022).
- UNESCO (2022), “Demographic and socio-economic”, http://data.uis.unesco.org/, (Accessed: 13.09.2022).
WB (2020). The human capital index 2020 update: Human capital in the time of covid-19. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34432 (accessed October 13, 2022).
- WB (2022a), “Education statistics”, https://databank.worldbank.org/databases/education, (Accessed: 23.12.2022).
- WB (2022b), “World development indicators”, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators (Accessed: 18.12.2022).
- WEF (2017), “Global human capital index-2017”, http://reports.weforum.org/global-human-capital-report-2017/sub-indexes/, (Accessed: 25.11.2022).
- WEF (2018), “The global competitiveness report 2018”, https://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2018/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2018.pdf, (Accessed: 13.10. 2022).
- WEF (2022), “Reports”, https://www.weforum.org/reports, (Accessed 11.09. 2022).
- Weresa, M. A. (2017). “Innovation, human capital and competitiveness in Central and Eastern Europe with regard to the challenges of a digital economy”, https://www.etui.org/sites/default/files/Chapter%203_5.pdf, (Accessed: 10.04.2023).
- Westerlund, J. (2007), “Testing for Error Correction in Panel Data”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 69 (6), 709-748.
- WHO (2022), “Global health expenditure database”, https://apps.who.int/nha/database/Select/Indicators/en, (Accessed: 13.08.2022).
- Wyszkowska-Kuna, J. (2017), “The role of intermediate demand and technology for international competitiveness of the KIBS sector: evidence from European Union Countries”, The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 26(7): 777-800.
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