Devletin Bakir Bir Tanımı: Sanal Devlet ve Katar Örneği

Yıl 2022, , 1 - 29, 07.07.2022

Cengiz Mert Bulut

https://doi.org/10.47932/ortetut.1112622

Öz

Yüksek katma değerli ve soyut varlıklarda uzmanlaşmaya başlayan devletler ile birlikte karasal ve askeri hırslar önemini yitirmeye başladı. Richard Rosecrance, bu nispeten küçük hacimli devletlerin yeni kalkınma yöntemlerini formüle etmeye gayret etti. Bu 'sanal' devletler, geleneksel üretim metotları ile içeride devasa bir imalat kapasitesi geliştirmek yerine, bilgi-bazlı, yapay zekâ ve inovasyona dayalı, sermayeyi öne çıkaran, katma değeri yüksek ve soyut varlıkların mobilitesini içeren bir kalkınma izledi. Bazı devletler, Rosecrance’ın tanımına göre tam olarak sanal devlet çerçevesine oturmasa da onun bazı karakteristiklerini taşıdı. Bu çalışma, zengin hidrokarbon kaynaklarını etkin ve verimli bir şekilde teknoloji ve inovasyon ile harmanlayarak sınır ve nüfusunun ötesinde bir nüfuz alanı kurmayı başaran Katar'ın birtakım sanal devlet karakteristikleri taşıdığını iddia etmektedir. Teorik bir incelemenin ardından çalışma, 2017 yılında dört Arap ülkesi tarafından Katar'a yönelik uygulanan ambargonun yıkıcı etkilerinin Katar'ın taşıdığı sanal devlet karakteristikleri nedeniyle bu ülke üzerinde sınırlı kaldığını iddia etmektedir. Son olarak, çalışmanın son bölümü, Katar'ın bu karakteristiklerinin en önemli uygulama sahası olarak Türkiye ile ilişkileri olduğunu iddia etmekte ve bu ilişkileri ideoloji ve siyaset temelli hâkim literatürün aksine iktisadi ve finansal açılardan değerlendirmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Sanal Devlet, Türkiye-Katar İlişkileri, Katar Diplomatik Krizi, Uluslararası İşbirliği, Yatırım

An Untapped Definition of The State: The Virtual State and Example of Qatar

Öz

The facet of territorial and military ambitions began to lose its importance with the states starting to specialize in high value-added and intangible assets. Richard Rosecrance endeavored to formulate a novel development method for these relatively small-scale states. Instead of developing an immense domestic manufacturing capacity with traditional production methods, these 'virtual' states have followed a knowledge, artificial intelligence, and innovation-based development that emphasizes investment, high added value, and the mobility of intangible assets. Although some states did not wholly fit into the virtual state framework within the scope of Rosecrance's definition, they carried some of its characteristics. This study claims that Qatar, which has succeeded in establishing a sphere of influence beyond its borders and population, has some virtual state characteristics by merging its rich hydrocarbon resources with technology and innovation. After a theoretical review, the study claims that Qatar's virtual state characteristics have considerably mitigated the deleterious effects of the embargo imposed on Qatar by four Arab countries in 2017. The final part expands the Qatar-Turkey relationship that comes to the forefront as the field of applying these characteristics from an economic and financial perspective, contrary to the prevailing ideology and politics-based studies in the literature.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Virtual State, Turkey-Qatar Relations, Qatar Diplomatic Crisis, International Cooperation, Investment

Arapça

Öz

بدأ وجه الطموحات الإقليمية والعسكرية يفقد أهميته مع بدء التخصص في الأصول غير الملموسة وذات القيمة المضافة العالية. حاول ريتشارد روزكرانس صياغة طريقة تطوير جديدة لهذه الدول الصغيرة نسبيًا. بدلاً من تطوير قدرة تصنيع محلية هائلة باستخدام أساليب الإنتاج التقليدية ، اتبعت هذه الدول "الافتراضية" المعرفة والذكاء الاصطناعي والتنمية القائمة على الابتكار التي تركز على الاستثمار والقيمة المضافة العالية وتنقل الأصول غير المادية. على الرغم من أن بعض الدول لم تنسجم تمامًا مع إطار الدولة الافتراضية ضمن نطاق تعريف Rosecrance ، إلا أنها حملت بعض خصائصه. تدعي هذه الدراسة أن قطر ، التي نجحت في إنشاء مجال نفوذ خارج حدودها وسكانها ، لديها بعض خصائص الدولة الافتراضية من خلال دمج مواردها الهيدروكربونية الغنية مع التكنولوجيا والابتكار. بعد مراجعة نظرية ، تزعم الدراسة أن خصائص دولة قطر الافتراضية قد خففت إلى حد كبير من الآثار الضارة للحظر المفروض على قطر من قبل أربع دول عربية في عام 2017. الجزء الأخير يوسع العلاقة بين قطر وتركيا التي تأتي في المقدمة باعتبارها مجال تطبيق هذه الخصائص من منظور اقتصادي ومالي خلافا للفكر السائد والدراسات السياسية في الأدب.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Arapça, Arapça2, Arapça3

Kaynakça

• Bakır, Ali. “The Evolution of Turkey—Qatar Relations Amid a Growing Gulf Divide.” In Divided Gulf: The Anatomy of a Crisis, edited by Andreas Krieg, 197–215. Contemporary Gulf Studies. Singapore: Springer, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6314-6_12.
• Başkan, Birol, and Özgür Pala. “Making Sense of Turkey’s Reaction to the Qatar Crisis.” The International Spectator 55, no. 2 (2020): 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2020.1739846.
• Battaloglu, Nesibe Hicret. “Ideational Factors in Turkey’s Alignment with Qatar and Their Impact on Regional Security.” The International Spectator 56, no. 4 (2021): 101–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2021.1994181.
• Bouoiyour, Jamal, and Refk Selmi. “The Gulf Divided: The Economic Impacts of the Qatar Crisis,” 2020. hal-02523284f.
• Çavuşoğlu, Esra. “From Rise to Crisis: The Qatari Leadership.” Turkish Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 7, no. 1 (2020): 81–110. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.624334.
• Chughtai, Alia. “Understanding the Blockade against Qatar.” ALJAZEERA, June 5, 2020. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/5/understanding-the-blockade-against-qatar.
• Collins, Gabriel. “Anti-Qatar Embargo Grinds Towards Strategic Failure.” In The GCC Crisis at One Year: Stalemate Becomes New Reality, edited by Zeina Azzam and Imad K. Harb, First ed. Arab Center Washington DC, 2018. https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-gcc-crisis-at-one-year-stalemate-becomes-new-reality/.
• Cooper, Richard N. “Trade Policy Is Foreign Policy.” Foreign Policy, no. 9 (1972): 18–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/1148083.
• BloombergHT. “Digiturk’ü Katarlılar aldı,” July 14, 2015, sec. world. https://www.bloomberght.com/haberler/haber/1812810-digiturku-katarlilar-aldi.
• Dilek, Şerif. “Katar Yatırımları ve Türkiye’nin Yeri [Qatar Investments and Turkey’s Place].” Analiz. İstanbul: Siyaset, Ekonomi ve Toplum Araştırmaları Vakfı (SETA), 2020.
• Erdoğan, Hüseyin. “Qatargas, BOTAS Sign New Three-Year LNG Agreement.” Anadolu Agency, September 20, 2017. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/natural-gas/qatargas-botas-sign-new-three-year-lng-agreement/723.
• “Export Volume Index (2000 = 100) - Singapore, Qatar | Data.” The World Bank. Accessed April 10, 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.QTY.MRCH.XD.WD?end=2020&locations=SG-QA&most_recent_value_desc=true&start=1999.
• "Food Production Index (2014-2016 = 100) - Qatar | Data.” The World Bank, Accessed April 17, 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.PRD.FOOD.XD?locations=QA&most_recent_value_desc=true.
• “Foreign Direct Investment, Net (BoP, Current US$) - Qatar, High Income | Data.” The World Bank, Accessed October 21, 2021. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BN.KLT.DINV.CD?contextual=region&end=2018&locations=QA-XD&most_recent_value_desc=true&start=2011&view=chart.
• Global Innovation Index 2021 - 14th Edition.” World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 2021.
• Gonultas, Bahattin. “Qatar Continues Investments across World.” Anadolu Agency, November 27, 2020. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/qatar-continues-investments-across-world/2058198.
• Gordon, Philip, Amos Yadlin, and Ari Heistein. “The Qatar Crisis: Causes, Implications, Risks, and the Need for Compromise.” The Institute for National Security Studies, June 13, 2017.
• The Associated Press News. “Hamas ‘shocked’ by Saudi Comments on Qatar,” June 7, 2017. https://apnews.com/article/terrorism-ap-top-news-qatar-international-news-hamas-e6ddc5c201ee4f05b6dcf6342a6a40b4.
• Hudson, Valerie M., and Christopher S. Vore. “Foreign Policy Analysis Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow.” Mershon International Studies Review 39, no. 2 (1995): 209–38. https://doi.org/10.2307/222751.
• “Human Capital Index (HCI) - Qatar | Data.” World Bank, 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/HD.HCI.OVRL?locations=QA&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=map.
• Ibrahim, Ibrahim, and Frank Harrigan. “Qatar’s Economy: Past, Present and Future.” QScience Connect 9, no. 1 (2012). https://doi.org/10.5339/connect.2012.9.
• “IMD World Competitiveness.” International Institute for Management Development, 2021. https://worldcompetitiveness.imd.org/rankings/WCY.
• Kamrava, Mehran. “Mediation and Qatari Foreign Policy.” Middle East Journal 65, no. 4 (2011): 539–56.
• ———. Qatar: Small State, Big Politics. With a New Preface edition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015.
• Anadolu Agency. “Katar Ile Anlaşmalar Imzalandı,” December 18, 2016. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/gunun-basliklari/katar-ile-anlasmalar-imzalandi/708956.
• Anadolu Agency. “Katar’dan Türkiye’ye 15 milyar dolar yatırım [Investment by $15 billion from Qatar to Turkey],” August 15, 2018. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/gunun-basliklari/katardan-turkiyeye-15-milyar-dolar-yatirim/1232364.
• Keohane, Robert O. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton University Press, 2005. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691122489/after-hegemony.
• Kirişçi, Kemal. “The Transformation of Turkish Foreign Policy: The Rise of the Trading State.” New Perspectives on Turkey 40 (ed 2009): 29–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0896634600005203.
• Kleinberg, Katja B., and Benjamin O. Fordham. “Trade and Foreign Policy Attitudes.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 54, no. 5 (March 12, 2010): 687–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002710364128.
• Dünya Gazetesi. “KOSGEB ve Katar Kalkınma Bankası güçlerini birleştirdi [KOSGEB and Qatar Development Bank united forces],” February 3, 2017. https://www.dunya.com/kobiden/kosgeb-ve-katar-kalkinma-bankasi-guclerini-birlestirdi-haberi-348515.
• Küçükaşcı, Ebrar Şahika. “Entente Cordiale: Exploring Turkey–Qatar Relations.” Discussion Paper. TRT World Research Center, February 2019.
• Lee, Wei-Chin. “The Development of Taiwan’s Commercial Aircraft Manufacturing Industry.” Asian Affairs 23, no. 1 (1996): 34–63.
• Low, Linda. “The Singapore Developmental State in the New Economy and Polity.” The Pacific Review 14, no. 3 (January 2001): 411–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512740110064848.
• BirGün. “Madde madde Katar’ın Türkiye yatırımları,” December 16, 2019. https://www.birgun.net/haber/madde-madde-katar-in-turkiye-yatirimlari-280178.
• Mansfield, Edward D., Helen V. Milner, and B. Peter Rosendorff. “Why Democracies Cooperate More: Electoral Control and International Trade Agreements.” International Organization 56, no. 3 (ed 2002): 477–513. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081802760199863.
• Milner, Helen V. Resisting Protectionism: Global Industries and the Politics of International Trade, 1989. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691010748/resisting-protectionism.
• Moravcsik, Andrew. Liberalism and International Relations Theory. Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 1992.
• Pala, Özgür, and Bülent Aras. “Practical Geopolitical Reasoning in the Turkish and Qatari Foreign Policy on the Arab Spring.” Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 17, no. 3 (Temmuz 2015): 286–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2015.1063274.
• Peterson, J. E. “Qatar and the World: Branding for a Micro-State.” Middle East Journal 60, no. 4 (2006): 732–48.
• BBC News. “Qatar Crisis: What You Need to Know,” July 19, 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-40173757.
• “Qatar Product Exports to Turkey 2010 | WITS Data.” The World Bank, Accessed October 20, 2021. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/QAT/Year/2010/TradeFlow/Export/Partner/TUR/Product/all-groups.
• Al Jazeera. “Qatar Restores Relations with Chad,” February 21, 2018. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/21/qatar-and-chad-restore-relations-first-since-blockade.
• “Qatar’s Economic Update 2020.” The World Bank, October 19, 2020. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/gcc/publication/economic-update-october-2020-qatar.
• Rawnsley, Gary D. “Virtual China: The Internet as Threat or Opportunity?” St Antony’s International Review 3, no. 1 (2007): 42–57.
• Rosecrance, Richard N. The Rise Of The Virtual State: Wealth and Power in the Coming Century. Revised ed. New York: Basic Books, 2000.
• ———, “The Rise of the Virtual State.” Foreign Affairs 75, no. 4 (1996): 45–61. https://doi.org/10.2307/20047658.
• Referans47 Selmi, Refk, and Jamal Bouoiyour. “Arab Geopolitics in Turmoil: Implications of Qatar-Gulf Crisis for Business.” International Economics 161 (May 1, 2020): 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2019.11.007.
• “Singapore Trade Summary 2000 | WITS |.” World Bank. Accessed April 6, 2022. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/SGP/Year/2000/Summarytext.
• Spiegel, Steven L. “Traditional Space vs. Cyberspace: The Changing Role of Geography in Current International Politics.” Geopolitics 5, no. 3 (December 1, 2000): 114–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040008407694.
• Walker, Martin. “America’s Virtual Empire.” World Policy Journal 19, no. 2 (2002): 13–20.
• Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Boston: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1979.
• Wintour, Patrick. “Donald Trump Tweets Support for Blockade Imposed on Qatar.” The Guardian, June 6, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/06/qatar-panic-buying-as-shoppers-stockpile-food-due-to-saudi-blockade.
• ———. “Gulf Plunged into Diplomatic Crisis as Countries Cut Ties with Qatar.” The Guardian, June 5, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/05/saudi-arabia-and-bahrain-break-diplomatic-ties-with-qatar-over-terrorism.
• ———. “Qatar Diplomatic Crisis – What You Need to Know.” The Guardian, June 5, 2017, sec. World news. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/05/qatar-diplomatic-crisis-what-you-need-to-know.
• “Borsa İstanbul A.Ş. - Kurumsal Yönetim [Istanbul Stock Exchange Corp. - Corporate Management].” Accessed October 25, 2021. https://www.borsaistanbul.com/tr/sayfa/218/kurumsal-yonetim.
• Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip. “Tank Palet Fabrikası İnceleme Programı’nda Yaptıkları Konuşma [Speech at the Tank Pallet Factory Review Program].” Speech, February 7, 2021. https://www.tccb.gov.tr/konusmalar/353/128582/tank-palet-fabrikasi-inceleme-programi-nda-yaptiklari-konusma.
• QNB Finansbank. “Hakkımızda | QNB Finansbank’ı Tanıyın [About - QNB Finansbank].” Accessed October 14, 2021. https://www.qnbfinansbank.com/qnb-finansbanki-taniyin/hakkimizda.
• “Katar Ülke Profili [Qatar Country Profile].” Ministry of Commerce, the Republic of Turkey, 2021. https://ticaret.gov.tr/data/5fa9240113b8762e4ca1a800/Katar%20%C3%9Clke%20Profili.pdf.
• “Mapping Militant Organizations. ‘Jaysh al-Islam,’ Stanford University, March 2019. https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/jaysh-al-islam.
• Qatar Embassy in Ankara - Turkey. “More Than 150 Turkish Companies Participate in ‘Expo Turkey by Qatar.’” Accessed October 20, 2021. https://ankara.embassy.qa/en/news/detail/2017/04/20/more-than-150-turkish-companies-participate-in-expo-turkey-by-qatar.
• Yapı Turkeybuild İstanbul. “Qatar Development Bank Joins Turkeybuild Istanbul 2019,” May 2, 2019. https://yapifuari.com.tr/Articles/qatar-development-bank-joins-turkeybuild-ista.
• Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute (SWFI). “Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) - Sovereign Wealth Fund, Qatar.” Accessed October 25, 2021. https://www.swfinstitute.org/profile/598cdaa60124e9fd2d05bc5a.
• “Qatar National Vision 2030.” Doha: General Secretariat For Development Planning, July 2008. https://www.gco.gov.qa/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/GCO-QNV-English.pdf.
• The Peninsula Qatar. “Qatari and Turkish Firms Sign 15 Agreements,” August 13, 2017. https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/13/08/2017/Qatari-and-Turkish-firms-sign-15-agreements.
• Qatar Foundation. “QNRF and TÜBİTAK Award Cybersecurity Projects.” Accessed March 14, 2020. https://www.qf.org.qa/media-center/qnrf-and-tubitak-award-cybersecurity-projects.
• Qatar National Research Fund. “TÜBİTAK - QNRF Joint Funding Program.” Accessed March 10, 2020. https://www.qnrf.org/en-us/Funding/Research-Programs/Thematic-and-Grand-Challenges-Research-Program/T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK-QNRF-Joint-Funding-Program.
• Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Turkey-Qatar Economic and Trade Relations.” Accessed October 20, 2021. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey_s-commercial-and-economic-relations-with-qatar.en.mfa.
• Central Bank of Republic of Turkey. “Yurt İçindeki Doğrudan Yatırımların Ülke Dağılımı [Share by Country of Domestic Direct Investments in Turkey].” Accessed October 25, 2021. https://evds2.tcmb.gov.tr/index.php?/evds/dashboard/4944.