Hizballah in Syria: The Limits of the Democracy/Moderation Paradigm

Yıl 2014, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 81 - 114, 01.01.2014

Dara Conduıt

Öz

Hizballah is a popular case study for those seeking to understand democratic transformations in radical groups, although there has never been consensus on whether Hizballah has genuinely transformed. Although Hizballah appeared committed to parliamentary politics between 1992 and 2008, the group’s behaviour in the lead up to the 2008 Doha Agreement and its intervention in Syria in 2013 suggest that democracy has failed to fully ‘tame’ Hizballah. This article applies Schwedler’s model of democratic moderation to Hizballah, showing that there was evidence of a number of limitations in Hizballah’s transition long before 2008

Anahtar Kelimeler

Hizballah, Hezbollah, Islamism, Islam and Democracy, Lebanon, Syrian Conflict, Doha Agreement, Syria, Democratisation

Suriye’de Hizbullah: Demokrasinin Sınırları/Ilımlılaştırma Paradigma

Öz

Hizbullah’ın gerçekten dönüştüğü konusunda bir fikir birliği olmamasına rağmen, radikal gruplarda demokratik dönüşümleri anlamak isteyenler için Hizbullah sıklıkla başvurulan bir vaka çalışmasıdır. Hizbullah 1992 ve 2008 yılları arasında parlamenter siyasete bağlı bir görüntü sergilemesine rağmen, 2008 Doha Anlaşması’na giden süreçte ve 2013’de Suriye müdahalesindeki davranışı göstermektedir ki demokrasi Hizbullah’ı uysallaştırmakta başarısız olmuştur. Bu makale Schwedler’in demokratik ılımlılık modelini Hizbullah’a uygular ve 2008’den çok önce Hizbullah’ın dönüşümünün sınırlarını ortaya koyan bir dizi kanıt olduğunu gösterir

Anahtar Kelimeler

Hizbullah, İslam, İslam ve Demokrasi, Lübnan, Suriye Sorunu, Doha Anlaşması, Suriye, Demokratikleşme

Kaynakça

• “Lebanon rivals agree crisis deal”, BBC News, 21 May 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7411835.stm.
• “Hezbollah leader demands veto power”, The Associated Press, 1 April 2008.
• “More Hezbollah fighters killed in Syria buried in Lebanon”, Ya Libnan, 8 April 2013, http://www.yalibnan.com/2013/04/08/ more-hezbollah-fighters-killed-in-syria-to-be-buried-in-lebanon/
• “Reports: Syrian Troops, Hezbollah consolidate gains in Homs”, VOA News, 28 July 2013, http://www.voanews.com/content/ report-says-syrian-troops-hezbollah-consolidate-gains-inhoms/1711770.html.
• “Syria: Hezbollah triumphs, but loses veterans”, UPI, 30 May 2013, http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2013/05/30/ Syria-Hezbollah-triumphs-but-loses-veterans/UPI-98951 369939886/.
• “Thailand arrests Hezbollah suspect after US Bangkok alert”, BBC News Asia, 13 January 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-asia-16543447.
• “The Taif Agreement,” United Nations, http://www.un.int/ wcm/webdav/site/lebanon/shared/documents/Constitution/The%20Taif%20Agreement%20%28English%20Version%29%20.pdf
• “U.S. diplomat blasts Hezbollah over role in Syria war”, CBS News, 1 July 2013, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162- 57591762/u.s-diplomat-blasts-hezbollah-over-role-in-syriawar/
• Alagha, J., Hizbullah’s documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto, (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011).
• ________,The Shifts in Hizbullah’s Ideology: Religious Ideology, Political Ideology and Political Program, (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006).
• Azani, E. “Hezbollah – a global terrorist organization – situationalreport as of September 2006”, Submission to the US House Committee on International Relations – Subcommittee on International Terrorism and Nonproliferation, 28 September 2006.
• Blanford, N., “Accusations mount of Hezbollah fighting in Syria”, Christian Science Monitor, 15 October 2012, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/1015/Accusations-mountof-Hezbollah-fighting-in-Syria.
• _________, “Did Hezbollah kill Hariri?”, Foreign Policy, 1 April 2010, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/04/01/ did_hezbollah_kill_hariri.
• _________, “Irritating Israel”, Bitter Lemons, Vol. 36, http://www. bitterlemons-international.org/inside.php?id=233
• _________, “Israel scrables aircraft as Lebanon hears news”, The Times, 5 November 2004.
• Blondel, J., Political parties: a genuine case for discontent?, (London: Wildwood House, 1978)
• Brafman Kittner, C., “The role of safe havens in Islamist terrorism”, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2007.
• Chartouni-Dubarry, M., “Hizballah: from militia to political party”, in R. Hollis & N. Shehadi (eds.) Lebanon on Hold: Implications for Middle East Peace, (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996).
• Conan, N., “Who is Hezbollah”, NPR: Talk of the Nation, 19 July 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId= 5568093 (Accessed 1March 2008).
• Deeb, L., “Hizballah: A primer”, Middle East Report Online, 31st July 2006.
• Democracy Reporting International, Lebanon: Assessment of the Electoral Framework: Election Law of 2008, (Berlin/Beirut: Democracy Reporting International, 2008).
• Devore, M., “Exploring the Iran-Hezbollah relationship: A case study of how state sponsorship affects terrorist group decisionmaking”, Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 6, No. 4-5, 2012.
• El Khazen, F., “Political parties in postwar Lebanon: Parties in search of partisans”, The Middle East Journal, Vol. 57, No. 4, 2003.
• Ezani, E., “Hezbollah’s strategy of “walking on the edge”: Between political game and political violence”, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Vol. 35, No.11, 2011.
• Fattah, H., “Hezbollah leads huge pro-Syrian protest in central Beirut”, The New York Times, 8 March 2005.
• Gambill, G. & Abdelnour, Z., “Hezbollah: Between Tehran and Damascus”, Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2002.
• Gleis, J. & Berti, B., Hezbollah and Hamas: A comparative study, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013).
• Gunning J., “Hizballah and the logic of political participation” in Heiberg, M., O’Leary, B. & Tirman, J. (eds.), Terror, insurgency and the state: Ending protracted conflicts, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
• Hajjar, S., Hizballah: Terrorism, national liberation or menace?, (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 2002).
• Hamzeh, A., “Lebanon’s Hizbullah: From Islamic revolution to parliamentary accommodation”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1993.
• Hamzeh, A., In the Path of Hizbullah, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2004). Harel, A., & Issacharoff, A., “Iran pays, Syria smuggles, and Hezbollah receives”, Haaretz, 14 October 2009.
• Harik, J., “Between Islam and the system: Sources and implications of popular support for Lebanon’s Hizballah”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 40 No. 1, 1996.
• _______, Hezbollah: The changing face of terrorism,(New York, IB Tauris, 2005).
• Herrick, J., “Nonstate actors: A comparative analysis of change and development within Hamas and Hezbollah” in B. Korany (ed.), The Changing Middle East, (New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2010).
• Horowitz, D., “Constitutional Design: proposals versus processes”, Paper presented at the conference ‘Constitutional Design 2000: Institutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy in the Late Twentieth Century,’ Kellogg Institute, University of Notre Dame, December 1999.
• Huntington, S., The Third Wave: Democratization in the lateTwentieth Century, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
• International Crisis Group, “Lebanon: Managing the gathering storm”, 5 December 2006. http://www.cggl.org/publicdocs/ Lebanon_Managing_the_Gathering_%20Storm.pdf.
• Kanter, J. & Rodoren, J., “European Union Adds Military Wing of Hezbollah to List of Terrorist Organizations”, The New York Times, 23 July 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/23/ world/middleeast/european-union-adds-hezbollah-wing-to-terror-list.html?pagewanted=all.
• Karakatsanis, N., “Political Learning as a Catalyst of Moderation: Lessons from Democratic Consolidation in Greece”, Democratization, Vol. 15 No. 2, 2008.
• Kirchheimer, O., “Transformation of Party Systems” in Lapalombara, J., &Weiner, M., (eds.),Political Parties and Political Development, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).
• Kramer, M., “Hizbullah: The Calculus of Jihad” in Marty, M.& Appleby, R., (eds.), Fundamentalisms and the State, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
• Kraiche, D.& Al-Fakih, R., “Ambush targets Hezbollah convoy”, The Daily Star, 17 July 2013, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/ News/Politics/2013/Jul-17/223970-ambush-targets-hezbollah-convoy.ashx#axzz2ZNfHqULK.
• Lakkis, H., “Christian parties, Hezbollah and Amal firm on Orthodox plan”, The Daily Star, 25 February 2013, http://www. dailystar.com.lb/Opinion/Commentary/2013/Feb-25/207794- christian-parties-hezbollah-and-amal-firm-on-orthodox-plan. ashx
• Levitt, M., “Testimony to the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs: Hezbollah: Financing terror through criminal enterprise”, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, United States Senate, 25 May 2005, http:// www.washingtoninstitute.org/html/pdf/hezbollah-testimony-05252005.pdf.
• Lijphart, A., “Constitutional Design for Divided Societies”, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 15 No. 2, 2006.
• Macleod, H., “Lebanese declaration threatens civil war”, The Observer, 11 May 2008.
• Mannes, A., Michael, M., Pate, A., Slive, A., Subrahamian, V. & Wilkenfeld, J., Stochastic Opponent Modeling Agents: A Case Study with Hizbullah, (College Park: University of Maryland, 2008)
• Morris, L., “Hezbollah chief defends group’s involvement in Syrian war”, The Washington Post, 26 May 2013.
• Mroue, B. & Karam, Z., “Explosion rocks Hezbollah stronghold in Beirut as Syria’s war spills into Lebanon”,The Globe and Mail, 9 July 2013.
• Noe, N., The relationship between Hizbullah & the United States in light of the current situation in the Middle East, (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 2006).
• Norton, A., “Hizballah: From Radicalism to Pragmatism?” Middle East Policy, Vol. 5No. 12, 1998.
• ________,Hezbollah: A Short History, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007).
• ________, Hizballah of Lebanon: Extremist Ideals vs. Mundane Politics, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1999).
• Ottoway, M., “Islamists and democracy: Keep the faith”, The New Republic, 6 June 2005..
• Phillips, D., From Bullets to Ballots: Violent Muslim movements in transition, (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009).
• Qassem, N.,Hizbullah: The story from within, (London: Saqi, 2006).
• Ranstorp, M., “The Strategy and Tactics of Hizballah’s ‘Lebanonisation Process’”, Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 3 No. 1, 1998.
• Ranstorp, M., Hizb´Allah in Lebanon: The politics of the Western Hostage Crisis,(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997).
• Roumani, R., “Syria’s last trump card”, Bitter Lemons, Vol. 36 No. 2, 2004. http://www.bitterlemons-international.org/inside. php?id=232 (Accessed 4 February 2014)
• Saad-Ghorayeb, A., Hizbu’llah: Politics and Religion, (London: Pluto Press, 2002).
• Samii, A., “A stable structure on shifting sands: assessing the Hizbullah-Iran-Syria realtionship”,Middle East Journal, Vol. 62. No.1, 2007.
• Sankari, J., Fadlallah: the making of a radical Shi’ite leader, (London: Saqi, 2005).
• Saouli, A., “Lebanon’s Hizbullah: The quest for survival”, World Affairs, Vol. 166 No. 2.
• Schwedler, J., Faith in moderation: Islamist parties in Jordan and Yemen, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
• Shanahan, R., Radical Islamist groups in the modern age: A case study of Hizbullah, (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Institute, 2003).
• _________,The Shi’a of Lebanon: Clans, Parties and Clerics,(London: I.B. Tauris, 2005).
• Sherlock, R., “Clashes in Lebanon as Syria conflict spills over”, The Telegraph, 24 June 2013.
• Snow, D., Rochford, E., Worden, S. & Benford, R., “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 No. 4, 1986.
• Sobelman, D., “Hizbollah after the Syrian withdrawal”,Strategic Assessment, Vol. 8 No. 1,2005.
• _________, New rules of the game, (Tel Aviv: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, 2004).
• Statton, A. & Stewart, E., “Violence escalates between Sunni and Shia in Beirut”, The Guardian, 9 May 2008.
• Trendle, G., “The grass roots of success”, The Middle East, 1 February 1993.
• Ward, O., “Syria: How Hezbollah became a game-changer”, The Star, 23 July 2013, http://www.thestar.com/news/ world/2013/07/23/syria_how_hezbollah_became_a_gamech anger.html.
• Wickham, C., “The Path to Moderation: Strategy and Learning in the Formation of Egypt’s Wasat Party”, Comparative Politics, Vol. 36, No. 2, 2004.
• Wittes, T., “Islamist parties: Three kinds of movements”, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2008.