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Çatışma Çözümleri ve Uzlaşma Süreçlerinde Kimlik: Suriye’de Mezhepsel Kimlikler ve Çatışma Sonrası Suriye

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1, 49 - 77, 07.07.2022
https://doi.org/10.47932/ortetut.1127972

Öz

Suriye çatışma çalışmaları literatüründe yer bulan önemli örneklerden birisidir. Suriye’deki olayların çok sayıda sebebi mevcut olsa da mezhepsel kimlikler, bu kimliklerle bağlantılı gelişen materyal kazanımlar ve bunun etrafında şekillenen bir çatışma döngüsü göze çarpmaktadır. Suriye’deki şiddet sona erdiğinde ya da farklı bir biçime dönüştüğünde çatışma öncesi ve sırasında olduğu gibi çatışma sonrası süreçlerde de kimlik vurgusu ve mezhepsel kimlikler, siyasi ve toplumsal hayatta yer bulmaya devam edecektir. Bu nedenle çatışma sonrası çözüm ve uzlaşma gibi süreçlerinin gerçekleştirilmesi ve bu süreçlerde kimliklerin ve kimlik dönüşümlerinin dikkate alınması gerekmektedir. Ülkede kimliklerin araçsallaştırılarak çatışma unsuru haline getirilmesinin önüne geçilmesi önem arz etmektedir. Bu süreçler ülkede hakiki anlamda barışın gelmesi ve şiddetin tekrarlanmaması için gereklidir. Çatışma çözümleri ve uzlaşma literatüründe somut çözümlerle beraber kimlik dönüşümlerinin gerçekleştirilmesi en çok bahsedilen konulardan birisidir. Bu süreçler uygun şekillerde gerçekleştirilmezlerse şiddetin belli dönemlerde tekrar eden döngüsel bir niteliğe bürünmesi sık rastlanan bir durumdur. Çalışmada Suriye’deki mezhepsel kimlikler, çatışma sonrası beklenen çözüm ve uzlaşma süreçlerinde kimliğin yeri ve kimlik dönüşümleri ile olası toplumsal uzlaşma yaklaşımlarından bahsedilecektir.

Kaynakça

  • Ababsa, Myriam (2015). “The End of a World: Drought and Agrarian Transformation in Northeast Syria 2007–2010”, Raymond Hinnebusch, Tina Zintl (der.), Syria from Reform to Revolt, Volume1: Political Economy and International Relations, Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University Press, 199-224.
  • Abdelal, Rawi E., Yoshiko Margaret Herrera, Alastair Iain Johnston, Rose McDermott (2009), Measuring Identity: A Guide for Social Scientists, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Almond, Gabriel A., Sidney Verba (1989), The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, London, Sage Publications.
  • Álvarez-Ossorio, Ignacio, I. Gutierrez de Teran (2013), “The Syrian Ruling Elite and the Failure of the Repressive Trend”, Ferran Izquierdo Brichs, Political Regimes in the Arab World: Society and The Exercise of Power, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Balanche, Fabrice (2018), Sectarianism in Syria’s Civil War, Washington, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  • Bishara, Azmi (2013), Syria: The Painful Path to Freedom. Doha, Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies.
  • Brubaker, Rogers and Frederick Cooper (2000), “Beyond “Identity””, Theory and Society, Cilt 29.
  • Burton, John W. (1969), Conflict Communication: The Use of Controlled Communication in International Relations, London, Macmillan.
  • Cederman, Lars-Erik, Andreas Wimmer, Brian Min (2010) “Why do ethnic groups rebel?: New data and analysis”, World Politics, Cilt 62, No 1, s. 87–119.
  • Cleveland, William L., Martin Bunton (2009), A History of the Modern Middle East, Philadelphia, Westview Press.
  • Cohen, Ronen A. (2014), Upheavals in the Middle East: The Theory and the Practice of a Revolution, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Lexington Books.
  • Conduit, Dara (2017), “The Patterns of Syrian uprising: Comparing Hama in 1980–1982
  • and Homs in 2011”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Cilt 44, No 1, s. 73-87.
  • Dolón, Rosana and Júlia Todoli (der.) (2008), Analysing Identities in Discourse, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  • Donati, Caroline (2013), “The Economics of Authoritarian Upgrading in Syria”, Steven Heydemann and Reinoud Leenders (der.) Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press s. 35-60.
  • Erkan, Hakan Sezgin (2021), “Suriyeli Göçmenlerin Türkiye’yi Tercihi Üzerinden Göç Teorilerine Yeniden Bakış”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 13, No 3, s. 421-445.
  • Fisher, Ronald J. (2001), “Social-Psychological Processes in Interactive Conflict Analysis and Reconciliation”, Mohammed Abu-Nimer (der.), Reconciliation, Justice and Coexistence: Theory and Practice, Lanham, MD, Lexington Books.
  • Fromkin, David (2001), A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East, New York, Henry Holt and Company.
  • Gibson, James L. (2003), Amanda Gouws, Overcoming Intolerance in South Africa: Experiments in Democratic Persuasion, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Gibson, James L. (2006), “Overcoming Apartheid: Can Truth Reconcile a Divided Nation?”, The Annals of the American Academy, No 603, s. 82-110.
  • Goldsmith, Leon (2011), “Syria’s Alawites and the Politics of Sectarian Insecurity: A Khaldunian Perspective”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 3, No 1, s. 33-60.
  • Gurr, Ted Robert (2000), Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century. Washington DC, US Institute of Peace Press.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2019) “Sectarianism and Governance in Syria”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism Cilt 19, No 1, s. 41-66.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2015), “President and Party in Post-Ba’thist Syria: From the Struggle for “Reform” to Regime Deconstruction”, Raymond Hinnebusch and Tina Zintl (der.), Syria from Reform to Revolt: Political Economy and International Relations Volume 1, New York, Syracuse University Press.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2011), “The Ba’th Party in Post-Ba’thist Syria: President, Party and the Struggle for ‘Reform’”, Middle East Critique, Cilt 20, No 2, s. 109-125.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2001), Syria: Revolution from Above, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Ismael, Tareq Y., Jacqueline S. Ismael, Glenn E. Perry (2010), Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (2008), “Reconciliation from a Social-Psychological Perspective,” Arie Nadler, Thomas E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher (der.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (2004), “Reconciliation as Identity Change: A Social-Psychological Perspective”, Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov (der.), From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (1998), “Building a Sustainable Peace: The Limits of Pragmatism in the Israeli–Palestinian Negotiations”, Journal of Palestine Studies, Cilt 28, No 1.
  • Lawson, Fred (2018), Re-visiting the Political Economy of the Syrian Uprising. In Raymond Hinnebusch and Omar Imady (der.), The Syrian Uprising: Domestic Origins and Early Trajectory, London and New York, Routledge.
  • Long, William J. and Peter Brecke (2003), War and Reconciliation: Reason and Emotion in Conflict Resolution, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
  • Malesevic, Sinisa (2006), Identity as Ideology: Understanding Ethnicity and Nationalism, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Masters, Bruce (2001), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Sectarianism, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Matar, Linda (2016), The Political Economy of Investment in Syria. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Mitchell, Christopher (2014), The Nature of Intractable Conflict: Resolution in the Twenty First Century, London, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Nadler, Arie and Nurit Shnabel (2008), “Instrumental and Socioemotional Paths to Intergroup Reconciliation and the Needs-Based Model of Socioemotional Reconciliation”, Arie Nadler, Thomas E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher (der.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, s. 37-56.
  • Phillips, Christopher (2015), “Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria”, Third World Quarterly, Cilt 36, No 2, s. 357-376.
  • Robinson, Heather M, Ben Connable, David E Thaler, Ali G Scotten (2018), Sectarianism in the Middle East: Implicatons for the United States, Santa Monica, RAND Corporation.
  • Roessler, Philip (2011), “The enemy within: Personal rule, coups, and civil war in Africa”, World Politics, Cilt 63, No 2, s. 300–346.
  • Rouhana, N. N. (2004), “Identity and Power in the Reconciliation of Protracted National Conflict,” A. H. Eagly, R. M. Baron and V. L. Hamilton (der.), The Social Psychology of Group Identity and Social Conflict: Theory, Application, and Practice, Washington, American Psychological Association, s. 173-187.
  • Salık, Nuri (2014), “Rethinking State-Society Relations in Syria until 1970: What Does the Center-Periphery Model Tell Us?, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 5, No 2, s. 115-140.
  • Smith, Rogers M. (2002), “Identity, Interests, and the Future of Political Science” Perspectives on Politics, Cilt 2, No 2, s. 301–312.
  • Sottimano, Aurora (2009), “Ideology and Discourse in the Era of Ba’thist Reforms: Towards an Analysis of Authoritarian Governmentality”, Aurora Sottimano and Kjetil Selvik, Changing Regime Discourse and Reform in Syria, Scotland, University of St. Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies.
  • Stolleis, Friederike (2015), “Discourses on Sectarianism and ‘Minorities’ in Syria” Friederike Stolleis (der.), Playing the Sectarian Card: Identities and Affiliations of Local Communities in Syria, Beirut, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
  • Staub, Ervin (2003), “Healing and Reconciliation”, R. G. Hovannisian, (der.), Looking Backward, Moving Forward: Confronting the Armenian Genocide, New Jersey, Transaction Publishers.
  • Verdeja, Ernesto (2009), Unchopping a Tree: Reconciliation in the Aftermath of Political Violence, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Verkuyten, Maykel (2005), The Social Psychology of Ethnic Identity, Hove, New York, Psychology Press.
  • Wedeen, Lisa (1999), Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria, Chicago, London, The University of Chicago Press.
  • Weigert, Andrew J., J. Smith Teitge, Dennis W. Teitge (1986), Society and Identity: Towards a Sociological Psychology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Whittaker, D. J. (1999), Conflict and Reconciliation in the Contemporary World, London and New York: Routledge.
  • Wimmen, Heiko (2017), “The Sectarianization of the Syrian War”, Frederic Wehrey (der.), Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East, Oxford, Oxford University Press, s. 61-85.

Identity in Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: Sectarian Identities in Post-Conflict Syria

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1, 49 - 77, 07.07.2022
https://doi.org/10.47932/ortetut.1127972

Öz

Syria is one of the significant examples in the literature of conflict studies. Although there are many reasons for the events in Syria, sectarian identities, material gains related to these identities and a cycle of violence may remain. When the violence in Syria ends or turns into a different form, the emphasis on identity and sectarian identities will continue to find a place in political and social life in the post-conflict processes as well as before and during the conflict. For this reason, it is necessary to consider identities and identity transformations in processes such as post-conflict resolution and reconciliation, and to prevent identities from becoming an element of conflict by instrumentalizing them. This is necessary for genuine peace to come in the country and to avoid a cycle of violence. One of the most critical issues in conflict resolution and reconciliation literature is the necessity of realizing identity transformations together with concrete solutions. If these processes are not carried out in appropriate ways, it is common that cycle of violence recurs in certain periods. In this study, sectarian identities in Syria, the place of identity in post-conflict resolution and reconciliation processes, identity transformations and possible social reconciliation approaches in Syria will be discussed.

Kaynakça

  • Ababsa, Myriam (2015). “The End of a World: Drought and Agrarian Transformation in Northeast Syria 2007–2010”, Raymond Hinnebusch, Tina Zintl (der.), Syria from Reform to Revolt, Volume1: Political Economy and International Relations, Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University Press, 199-224.
  • Abdelal, Rawi E., Yoshiko Margaret Herrera, Alastair Iain Johnston, Rose McDermott (2009), Measuring Identity: A Guide for Social Scientists, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Almond, Gabriel A., Sidney Verba (1989), The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, London, Sage Publications.
  • Álvarez-Ossorio, Ignacio, I. Gutierrez de Teran (2013), “The Syrian Ruling Elite and the Failure of the Repressive Trend”, Ferran Izquierdo Brichs, Political Regimes in the Arab World: Society and The Exercise of Power, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Balanche, Fabrice (2018), Sectarianism in Syria’s Civil War, Washington, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  • Bishara, Azmi (2013), Syria: The Painful Path to Freedom. Doha, Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies.
  • Brubaker, Rogers and Frederick Cooper (2000), “Beyond “Identity””, Theory and Society, Cilt 29.
  • Burton, John W. (1969), Conflict Communication: The Use of Controlled Communication in International Relations, London, Macmillan.
  • Cederman, Lars-Erik, Andreas Wimmer, Brian Min (2010) “Why do ethnic groups rebel?: New data and analysis”, World Politics, Cilt 62, No 1, s. 87–119.
  • Cleveland, William L., Martin Bunton (2009), A History of the Modern Middle East, Philadelphia, Westview Press.
  • Cohen, Ronen A. (2014), Upheavals in the Middle East: The Theory and the Practice of a Revolution, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Lexington Books.
  • Conduit, Dara (2017), “The Patterns of Syrian uprising: Comparing Hama in 1980–1982
  • and Homs in 2011”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Cilt 44, No 1, s. 73-87.
  • Dolón, Rosana and Júlia Todoli (der.) (2008), Analysing Identities in Discourse, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  • Donati, Caroline (2013), “The Economics of Authoritarian Upgrading in Syria”, Steven Heydemann and Reinoud Leenders (der.) Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press s. 35-60.
  • Erkan, Hakan Sezgin (2021), “Suriyeli Göçmenlerin Türkiye’yi Tercihi Üzerinden Göç Teorilerine Yeniden Bakış”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 13, No 3, s. 421-445.
  • Fisher, Ronald J. (2001), “Social-Psychological Processes in Interactive Conflict Analysis and Reconciliation”, Mohammed Abu-Nimer (der.), Reconciliation, Justice and Coexistence: Theory and Practice, Lanham, MD, Lexington Books.
  • Fromkin, David (2001), A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East, New York, Henry Holt and Company.
  • Gibson, James L. (2003), Amanda Gouws, Overcoming Intolerance in South Africa: Experiments in Democratic Persuasion, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Gibson, James L. (2006), “Overcoming Apartheid: Can Truth Reconcile a Divided Nation?”, The Annals of the American Academy, No 603, s. 82-110.
  • Goldsmith, Leon (2011), “Syria’s Alawites and the Politics of Sectarian Insecurity: A Khaldunian Perspective”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 3, No 1, s. 33-60.
  • Gurr, Ted Robert (2000), Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century. Washington DC, US Institute of Peace Press.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2019) “Sectarianism and Governance in Syria”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism Cilt 19, No 1, s. 41-66.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2015), “President and Party in Post-Ba’thist Syria: From the Struggle for “Reform” to Regime Deconstruction”, Raymond Hinnebusch and Tina Zintl (der.), Syria from Reform to Revolt: Political Economy and International Relations Volume 1, New York, Syracuse University Press.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2011), “The Ba’th Party in Post-Ba’thist Syria: President, Party and the Struggle for ‘Reform’”, Middle East Critique, Cilt 20, No 2, s. 109-125.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2001), Syria: Revolution from Above, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Ismael, Tareq Y., Jacqueline S. Ismael, Glenn E. Perry (2010), Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (2008), “Reconciliation from a Social-Psychological Perspective,” Arie Nadler, Thomas E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher (der.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (2004), “Reconciliation as Identity Change: A Social-Psychological Perspective”, Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov (der.), From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (1998), “Building a Sustainable Peace: The Limits of Pragmatism in the Israeli–Palestinian Negotiations”, Journal of Palestine Studies, Cilt 28, No 1.
  • Lawson, Fred (2018), Re-visiting the Political Economy of the Syrian Uprising. In Raymond Hinnebusch and Omar Imady (der.), The Syrian Uprising: Domestic Origins and Early Trajectory, London and New York, Routledge.
  • Long, William J. and Peter Brecke (2003), War and Reconciliation: Reason and Emotion in Conflict Resolution, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
  • Malesevic, Sinisa (2006), Identity as Ideology: Understanding Ethnicity and Nationalism, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Masters, Bruce (2001), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Sectarianism, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Matar, Linda (2016), The Political Economy of Investment in Syria. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Mitchell, Christopher (2014), The Nature of Intractable Conflict: Resolution in the Twenty First Century, London, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Nadler, Arie and Nurit Shnabel (2008), “Instrumental and Socioemotional Paths to Intergroup Reconciliation and the Needs-Based Model of Socioemotional Reconciliation”, Arie Nadler, Thomas E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher (der.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, s. 37-56.
  • Phillips, Christopher (2015), “Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria”, Third World Quarterly, Cilt 36, No 2, s. 357-376.
  • Robinson, Heather M, Ben Connable, David E Thaler, Ali G Scotten (2018), Sectarianism in the Middle East: Implicatons for the United States, Santa Monica, RAND Corporation.
  • Roessler, Philip (2011), “The enemy within: Personal rule, coups, and civil war in Africa”, World Politics, Cilt 63, No 2, s. 300–346.
  • Rouhana, N. N. (2004), “Identity and Power in the Reconciliation of Protracted National Conflict,” A. H. Eagly, R. M. Baron and V. L. Hamilton (der.), The Social Psychology of Group Identity and Social Conflict: Theory, Application, and Practice, Washington, American Psychological Association, s. 173-187.
  • Salık, Nuri (2014), “Rethinking State-Society Relations in Syria until 1970: What Does the Center-Periphery Model Tell Us?, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 5, No 2, s. 115-140.
  • Smith, Rogers M. (2002), “Identity, Interests, and the Future of Political Science” Perspectives on Politics, Cilt 2, No 2, s. 301–312.
  • Sottimano, Aurora (2009), “Ideology and Discourse in the Era of Ba’thist Reforms: Towards an Analysis of Authoritarian Governmentality”, Aurora Sottimano and Kjetil Selvik, Changing Regime Discourse and Reform in Syria, Scotland, University of St. Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies.
  • Stolleis, Friederike (2015), “Discourses on Sectarianism and ‘Minorities’ in Syria” Friederike Stolleis (der.), Playing the Sectarian Card: Identities and Affiliations of Local Communities in Syria, Beirut, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
  • Staub, Ervin (2003), “Healing and Reconciliation”, R. G. Hovannisian, (der.), Looking Backward, Moving Forward: Confronting the Armenian Genocide, New Jersey, Transaction Publishers.
  • Verdeja, Ernesto (2009), Unchopping a Tree: Reconciliation in the Aftermath of Political Violence, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Verkuyten, Maykel (2005), The Social Psychology of Ethnic Identity, Hove, New York, Psychology Press.
  • Wedeen, Lisa (1999), Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria, Chicago, London, The University of Chicago Press.
  • Weigert, Andrew J., J. Smith Teitge, Dennis W. Teitge (1986), Society and Identity: Towards a Sociological Psychology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Whittaker, D. J. (1999), Conflict and Reconciliation in the Contemporary World, London and New York: Routledge.
  • Wimmen, Heiko (2017), “The Sectarianization of the Syrian War”, Frederic Wehrey (der.), Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East, Oxford, Oxford University Press, s. 61-85.

Identity in Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: Sectarian Identities in Post-Conflict Syria

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1, 49 - 77, 07.07.2022
https://doi.org/10.47932/ortetut.1127972

Öz

Syria is one of the significant examples in the literature of conflict studies. Although there are many reasons for the events in Syria, sectarian identities, material gains related to these identities and a cycle of violence may remain. When the violence in Syria ends or turns into a different form, the emphasis on identity and sectarian identities will continue to find a place in political and social life in the post-conflict processes as well as before and during the conflict. For this reason, it is necessary to consider identities and identity transformations in processes such as post-conflict resolution and reconciliation, and to prevent identities from becoming an element of conflict by instrumentalizing them. This is necessary for genuine peace to come in the country and to avoid a cycle of violence. One of the most critical issues in conflict resolution and reconciliation literature is the necessity of realizing identity transformations together with concrete solutions. If these processes are not carried out in appropriate ways, it is common that cycle of violence recurs in certain periods. In this study, sectarian identities in Syria, the place of identity in post-conflict resolution and reconciliation processes, identity transformations and possible social reconciliation approaches in Syria will be discussed.

Kaynakça

  • Ababsa, Myriam (2015). “The End of a World: Drought and Agrarian Transformation in Northeast Syria 2007–2010”, Raymond Hinnebusch, Tina Zintl (der.), Syria from Reform to Revolt, Volume1: Political Economy and International Relations, Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University Press, 199-224.
  • Abdelal, Rawi E., Yoshiko Margaret Herrera, Alastair Iain Johnston, Rose McDermott (2009), Measuring Identity: A Guide for Social Scientists, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Almond, Gabriel A., Sidney Verba (1989), The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, London, Sage Publications.
  • Álvarez-Ossorio, Ignacio, I. Gutierrez de Teran (2013), “The Syrian Ruling Elite and the Failure of the Repressive Trend”, Ferran Izquierdo Brichs, Political Regimes in the Arab World: Society and The Exercise of Power, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Balanche, Fabrice (2018), Sectarianism in Syria’s Civil War, Washington, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  • Bishara, Azmi (2013), Syria: The Painful Path to Freedom. Doha, Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies.
  • Brubaker, Rogers and Frederick Cooper (2000), “Beyond “Identity””, Theory and Society, Cilt 29.
  • Burton, John W. (1969), Conflict Communication: The Use of Controlled Communication in International Relations, London, Macmillan.
  • Cederman, Lars-Erik, Andreas Wimmer, Brian Min (2010) “Why do ethnic groups rebel?: New data and analysis”, World Politics, Cilt 62, No 1, s. 87–119.
  • Cleveland, William L., Martin Bunton (2009), A History of the Modern Middle East, Philadelphia, Westview Press.
  • Cohen, Ronen A. (2014), Upheavals in the Middle East: The Theory and the Practice of a Revolution, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Lexington Books.
  • Conduit, Dara (2017), “The Patterns of Syrian uprising: Comparing Hama in 1980–1982
  • and Homs in 2011”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Cilt 44, No 1, s. 73-87.
  • Dolón, Rosana and Júlia Todoli (der.) (2008), Analysing Identities in Discourse, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  • Donati, Caroline (2013), “The Economics of Authoritarian Upgrading in Syria”, Steven Heydemann and Reinoud Leenders (der.) Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press s. 35-60.
  • Erkan, Hakan Sezgin (2021), “Suriyeli Göçmenlerin Türkiye’yi Tercihi Üzerinden Göç Teorilerine Yeniden Bakış”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 13, No 3, s. 421-445.
  • Fisher, Ronald J. (2001), “Social-Psychological Processes in Interactive Conflict Analysis and Reconciliation”, Mohammed Abu-Nimer (der.), Reconciliation, Justice and Coexistence: Theory and Practice, Lanham, MD, Lexington Books.
  • Fromkin, David (2001), A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East, New York, Henry Holt and Company.
  • Gibson, James L. (2003), Amanda Gouws, Overcoming Intolerance in South Africa: Experiments in Democratic Persuasion, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Gibson, James L. (2006), “Overcoming Apartheid: Can Truth Reconcile a Divided Nation?”, The Annals of the American Academy, No 603, s. 82-110.
  • Goldsmith, Leon (2011), “Syria’s Alawites and the Politics of Sectarian Insecurity: A Khaldunian Perspective”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 3, No 1, s. 33-60.
  • Gurr, Ted Robert (2000), Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century. Washington DC, US Institute of Peace Press.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2019) “Sectarianism and Governance in Syria”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism Cilt 19, No 1, s. 41-66.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2015), “President and Party in Post-Ba’thist Syria: From the Struggle for “Reform” to Regime Deconstruction”, Raymond Hinnebusch and Tina Zintl (der.), Syria from Reform to Revolt: Political Economy and International Relations Volume 1, New York, Syracuse University Press.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2011), “The Ba’th Party in Post-Ba’thist Syria: President, Party and the Struggle for ‘Reform’”, Middle East Critique, Cilt 20, No 2, s. 109-125.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2001), Syria: Revolution from Above, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Ismael, Tareq Y., Jacqueline S. Ismael, Glenn E. Perry (2010), Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East, London, New York, Routledge.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (2008), “Reconciliation from a Social-Psychological Perspective,” Arie Nadler, Thomas E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher (der.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (2004), “Reconciliation as Identity Change: A Social-Psychological Perspective”, Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov (der.), From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kelman, Herbert C. (1998), “Building a Sustainable Peace: The Limits of Pragmatism in the Israeli–Palestinian Negotiations”, Journal of Palestine Studies, Cilt 28, No 1.
  • Lawson, Fred (2018), Re-visiting the Political Economy of the Syrian Uprising. In Raymond Hinnebusch and Omar Imady (der.), The Syrian Uprising: Domestic Origins and Early Trajectory, London and New York, Routledge.
  • Long, William J. and Peter Brecke (2003), War and Reconciliation: Reason and Emotion in Conflict Resolution, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
  • Malesevic, Sinisa (2006), Identity as Ideology: Understanding Ethnicity and Nationalism, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Masters, Bruce (2001), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Sectarianism, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Matar, Linda (2016), The Political Economy of Investment in Syria. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Mitchell, Christopher (2014), The Nature of Intractable Conflict: Resolution in the Twenty First Century, London, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Nadler, Arie and Nurit Shnabel (2008), “Instrumental and Socioemotional Paths to Intergroup Reconciliation and the Needs-Based Model of Socioemotional Reconciliation”, Arie Nadler, Thomas E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher (der.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, s. 37-56.
  • Phillips, Christopher (2015), “Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria”, Third World Quarterly, Cilt 36, No 2, s. 357-376.
  • Robinson, Heather M, Ben Connable, David E Thaler, Ali G Scotten (2018), Sectarianism in the Middle East: Implicatons for the United States, Santa Monica, RAND Corporation.
  • Roessler, Philip (2011), “The enemy within: Personal rule, coups, and civil war in Africa”, World Politics, Cilt 63, No 2, s. 300–346.
  • Rouhana, N. N. (2004), “Identity and Power in the Reconciliation of Protracted National Conflict,” A. H. Eagly, R. M. Baron and V. L. Hamilton (der.), The Social Psychology of Group Identity and Social Conflict: Theory, Application, and Practice, Washington, American Psychological Association, s. 173-187.
  • Salık, Nuri (2014), “Rethinking State-Society Relations in Syria until 1970: What Does the Center-Periphery Model Tell Us?, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Cilt 5, No 2, s. 115-140.
  • Smith, Rogers M. (2002), “Identity, Interests, and the Future of Political Science” Perspectives on Politics, Cilt 2, No 2, s. 301–312.
  • Sottimano, Aurora (2009), “Ideology and Discourse in the Era of Ba’thist Reforms: Towards an Analysis of Authoritarian Governmentality”, Aurora Sottimano and Kjetil Selvik, Changing Regime Discourse and Reform in Syria, Scotland, University of St. Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies.
  • Stolleis, Friederike (2015), “Discourses on Sectarianism and ‘Minorities’ in Syria” Friederike Stolleis (der.), Playing the Sectarian Card: Identities and Affiliations of Local Communities in Syria, Beirut, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
  • Staub, Ervin (2003), “Healing and Reconciliation”, R. G. Hovannisian, (der.), Looking Backward, Moving Forward: Confronting the Armenian Genocide, New Jersey, Transaction Publishers.
  • Verdeja, Ernesto (2009), Unchopping a Tree: Reconciliation in the Aftermath of Political Violence, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Verkuyten, Maykel (2005), The Social Psychology of Ethnic Identity, Hove, New York, Psychology Press.
  • Wedeen, Lisa (1999), Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria, Chicago, London, The University of Chicago Press.
  • Weigert, Andrew J., J. Smith Teitge, Dennis W. Teitge (1986), Society and Identity: Towards a Sociological Psychology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Whittaker, D. J. (1999), Conflict and Reconciliation in the Contemporary World, London and New York: Routledge.
  • Wimmen, Heiko (2017), “The Sectarianization of the Syrian War”, Frederic Wehrey (der.), Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East, Oxford, Oxford University Press, s. 61-85.
Toplam 52 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Siyaset Bilimi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Ebru Çoban Öztürk 0000-0002-6332-7639

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 1 Temmuz 2022
Yayımlanma Tarihi 7 Temmuz 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Çoban Öztürk, Ebru. “Çatışma Çözümleri Ve Uzlaşma Süreçlerinde Kimlik: Suriye’de Mezhepsel Kimlikler Ve Çatışma Sonrası Suriye”. Ortadoğu Etütleri 14, sy. 1 (Temmuz 2022): 49-77. https://doi.org/10.47932/ortetut.1127972.

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