Dikkat Eksikliği ve Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocuklarla Tipik Gelişim Gösteren Çocukların Sosyal Bilgi İşleme Süreçleri ve Yönetici İşlev Davranışlarının Karşılaştırmalı İncelenmesi

Yıl 2023, , 375 - 399, 01.09.2023

Hidayet Dikici , Selda Özdemir

https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.1001476

Öz

Giriş: Dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite bozukluğu (DEHB) olan çocukların sosyal bilgi işleme sürecinde her bir basamakta gösterdikleri performansı ve yönetici işlev davranışlarını tipik gelişim gösteren (TGG) çocuklarla karşılaştırarak incelemek; süreçlerdeki sınırlılıkları belirlemek ve DEHB olan çocukları akademik ve sosyal hayatta gelecekte bekleyen riskleri azaltma açısından önemlidir. Bu bağlamda araştırmanın amacı DEHB olan çocuklarla TGG çocukların sosyal bilgi işleme süreçleri ve yönetici işlev davranışlarının karşılaştırılmalı incelenmesidir.
Yöntem: Araştırma, nicel araştırma desenlerinden tarama modelinden, genel tarama modeli kullanılarak yürütülmüştür. Araştırmanın katılımcıları, 8-10 yaş aralığında, 25 DEHB tanısı almış çocuk ile yine aynı cinsiyette ve yaş aralığında TGG 25 çocuk olmak üzere 50 çocuktur. Araştırmaya 25 öğretmen ve 50 ebeveyn dahil olmuştur. Araştırmada veri toplama araçları olarak Sosyal Bilgi İşleme Süreci Değerlendirme Formu ve Yönetici İşlev Davranışlarını Değerlendirme Ölçeği’nin anne-baba ve öğretmen formları kullanılmıştır.
Bulgular: Araştırma bulguları DEHB olan çocuklarla TGG çocuklar arasında Sosyal Bilgi İşleme Süreci Değerlendirme Formu’nun tüm basamaklarında anlamlı farklılıklar olduğunu göstermiştir. Bu bulgularla benzer biçimde Yönetici İşlev Davranışları Derecelendirme Ölçeği Ebeveyn ve Öğretmen Formu’nun tüm alt ölçeklerinde ve alt boyutlarında da anlamlı farklılıklar saptanmıştır. Sosyal bilgi işleme süreci ve yönetici işlev davranışları arasındaki ilişkiler incelendiğinde ise Sosyal Bilgi İşleme Becerisi Değerlendirme Formu’nun bazı alt basamakları ile Yönetici İşlev Davranışları Derecelendirme Ölçeği’nin Anne Baba ve Öğretmen Formunun bazı alt boyutları arasında anlamlı ilişkilerin olduğu saptanmıştır.
Tartışma: Bulgular, DEHB olan çocukların TGG akranları ile kıyaslandığında Sosyal Bilgi İşleme Modelinin altı adımının her birinde ve yönetici işlevlerin bazı alt boyutlarında sınırlılıklar yaşadıklarını göstermektedir. Araştırma bulguları sosyal bilgi işleme ile yönetici işlevler arasındaki ilişkilerin DEHB olan çocukların sosyal ve akademik becerilerindeki önemine işaret etmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite bozukluğu, sosyal bilgi işleme, yönetici işlevler, sosyal beceriler, davranış problemleri

A Comparative Study of Social Information Processing and Executive Functioning in Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder and Typically Developing Children

Öz

Introduction: Examining the performance of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in each step of the social information processing and their executive functioning behaviors while comparing them to typically developing (TD) children and determining their limitations in these processes is important for reducing the future risks that children with ADHD may face in academic and social life. In this context, the aim of the study is to comparatively examine the social information processing and executive functioning behaviors of children with ADHD and TD children.
Method: The study was conducted using a general survey model, which is one of the quantitative research designs. The participants of the study included 25 children diagnosed with ADHD, aged between 8 and 10, and 25 TD children of the same gender and age range. Additionally, 25 teachers and 50 parents participated in the study. The data collection tools used in the study were the Social Information Processing Assessment Form and the Parent and Teacher Form of the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF).
Findings: The study findings showed significant differences between children with ADHD and TD children in all stages of the Social Information Processing Assessment Form. Similar significant differences were also found in all the sub-scales and sub-dimensions of the Parent and Teacher Form of the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Functions. The relationships between social information processing skills and executive functioning skills also revealed significant associations between some sub-stages of the Social Information Processing Skills Assessment Form and some sub-dimensions of the Parent and Teacher Form of the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Functions.
Discussion: The findings indicate that children with ADHD experience limitations in each of the six steps of the Social Information Processing Model and in some sub-dimensions of executive functions when compared to their TD peers. The findings emphasize the significance of the relationships between social information processing and executive functioning in the development of social and academic skills in children with ADHD.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, social information processing, executive functioning, social skills, behavioral problems

Kaynakça

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-V. American Psychiatric Pub.
• Anastopoulos, A. D., Smith, T. F., Garrett, M. E., Morrissey-Kane, E., Schatz, N. K., Sommer, J. L., Kollins, S. H., & Ashley-Koch, A. (2011). Self-regulation of emotion, functional ımpairment, and comorbidity among children with AD/HD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15(7), 583–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054710370567
• Andrade, B. F. (2006). Finding the positive in a hostile world: Relationships between aspects of social information processing, prosocial behavior, and aggressive behavior, in children with ADHD and disruptive behavior. Doctoral Dissertation, Dalhousie University Institute of Philosophy, Canada.
• Andrade, B. F., Waschbusch, D. A., Doucet, A., King, S., MacKinnon, M., McGrath, P. J., Stewart, S. H., & Corkum, P. (2012). Social information processing of positive and negative hypothetical events in children with ADHD and conduct problems and controls. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16(6), 491–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711401346
• Bagwell, C. L., Molina, B. S., Pelham, W. E., Jr, & Hoza, B. (2001). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and problems in peer relations: predictions from childhood to adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1285–1292. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00008
• Barkley R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65
• Barkley, R. (2012). The important role of executive functioning and self-regulation in ADHD. http://www.russellbarkley.org/factsheets/ADHD_EF_and_SR.pdf sayfasından erişilmiştir.
• Barkley, R. (2016). Managing ADHD in school: The best evidence-based methods for teachers. Pesi Publishing & Media. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nigde/reader.action?docID=6260902
• Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. Guilford.
• Brown, E. T., (2009). Dikkat eksikliği bozukluğu: Çocuklarda ve yetişkinlerde odaklanamayan zihin (E. Çetittaş Sönmez, Çev.). ODTÜ.
• Cadesky, E. B., Mota, V. L., & Schachar, R. J. (2000). Beyond words: how do children with ADHD and/or conduct problems process nonverbal information about affect? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(9), 1160–1167. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200009000-00016
• Castellanos, I., Kronenberger, W. G., & Pisoni, D. B. (2018). Questionnaire-based assessment of executive functioning: Psychometrics. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 7(2), 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2016.1248557
• Craig, F., Margari, F., Legrottaglie, A. R., Palumbi, R., De Giambattista, C., & Margari, L. (2016). A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 1191-1202.
• Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in childrens social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74
• Crick, N. R., & Ladd, G. W. (1993). Children’s perceptions of their peer experiences: Attributions, loneliness, social anxiety, and social avoidance. Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 244-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.29.2.244
• De Boo, G. M., & Prins, P. J. (2007). Social incompetence in children with ADHD: Possible moderators and mediators in social-skills training. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(1), 78-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.03.006
• Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children’s aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162-170.
• Dodge, K. A. (1993). Social-cognitive mechanisms in the development of conduct disorder and depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 559–584. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.003015
• Dodge, K. A., & Crick, N. R. (1990). Social information processing bases of aggressive behavior in children. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(1), 8-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002
• Dodge, K. A., & Frame, C. L. (1982). Social cognitive biases and deficits in aggressive boys. Child Development, 53(3), 620–635. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129373
• Dodge, K. A., & Newman, J. P. (1981). Biased decision-making processes in aggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90(4), 375–379. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.90.4.375
• Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., McClaskey, C. L., & Brown, M. M. (1986). Social competence in children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 51(2), 1–85. https://doi.org/10.2307/1165906
• Doğutepe-Dinçer, E., Erdoğan-Bakar, E., Işık Taner, Y., Soysal, I., Turgay, A., & Karakaş, S. (2012). Conners derecelendirme ölçeğinin yönetici işlevlerle ilişkisi. Türkiye Klinikleri Tıp Bilimleri Dergisi, 32(4), 1011-1025.
• Eisenberg, N., & Zhou, Q. (2016). Conceptions of executive function and regulation: When and to what degree do they overlap? In J.A. Griffi n, P. McCardle & L.S. Freund (Eds.), Executive function in preschool-age children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research (pp. 115-136). American Psychological Association.
• Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas, A. (1994). The relatios of emotionality and regulation to children’s anger-related reactions. Child Development, 65(1), 109–128. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131369
• Evans, S. C., Roberts, M. C., Keeley, J. W., Blossom, J. B., Amaro, C. M., Garcia, A. M., & Reed, G. M. (2015). Vignette methodologies for studying clinicians’ decision-making: Validity, utility, and application in ICD-11 field studies. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 15(2), 160-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2014.12.001
• Finch, J. (1987). The vignette technique in survey research. Sociology, 21(1), 105-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0038038587021001008
• Gifford-Smith, M. E., & Rabiner, D. L. (2004). Social information processing and children's social adjustment. In J. B. Kupersmidt & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), Children's peer relations: From development to intervention (pp. 61–79). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10653-004
• Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2004). Ecological assessment of executive function in traumatic brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25(1-2), 135-158.
• Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000a). Behavior rating inventory of executive function. Psychological Assessment Resource.
• Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000b). BRIEF: Behavior rating inventory of executive function. Child Neuropsychology, 6(3), 235-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/chin.6.3.235.3152
• Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Retzlaff, P. D., & Espy, K. A. (2002). Confirmatory factor analysis of the behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF) in a clinical sample. Child Neuropsychology, 8(4), 249-257.
• Gropper, R. J., & Tannock, R. (2009). A pilot study of working memory and academic achievement in college students with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12(6), 574-581. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708320390
• Hana, T. K. (1993). Social information processing skills of students with learning disabilities. Doctoral Dissertation, Dalhousie University Institute of Philosophy, Chicago.
• Hoza, B. (2007). Peer functioning in children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(6), 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsm024
• Hoza, B., Mrug, S., Gerdes, A. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Bukowski, W. M., Gold, J. A., Kraemer, H. C., Pelham, W. E., Jr, Wigal, T., & Arnold, L. E. (2005). What aspects of peer relationships are impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.411
• Huang-Pollock, C. L., Mikami, A. Y., Pfiffner, L., & McBurnett, K. (2009). Can executive functions explain the relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and social adjustment? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(5), 679–691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9302-8
• Hughes, C., White, A., Sharpen, J., & Dunn, J. (2000). Antisocial, angry, and unsympathetic: “Hard-to-manage” preschoolers' peer problems and possible cognitive influences. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(2), 169-179.
• Hurley, K., (2020). ADHD and technology: A help or a hindrance? Retrieved September 2021 from https://www.psycom.net/adhd-and-technology
• Karakaş, S. & Doğutepe-Dinçer, E. (2011b). Information collection form for clinical child population. Nöropsikolojik testlerin çocuklar için araştırma ve geliştirme çalışmaları: BİLNOT-Çocuk, Cilt II (Ek 5). Nobel Tıp.
• Karakaş, S., & Doğutepe-Dinçer, E. (2011a). Interdisciplinary discipline and neuropsychology. Nöropsikolojik testlerin çocuklar için araştırma ve geliştirme çalışmaları: BİLNOT-Çocuk. Cilt I. Nobel Tıp
• King, S., Waschbusch, D. A., Pelham, W. E., Jr., Frankland, B. W., Andrade, B. F., Jacques, S., & Corkum, P. V. (2009). Social information processing in elementary-school aged children with ADHD: Medication effects and comparisons with typical children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(4), 579–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9294-9
• Lim, K. G. (2002). Executive functioning, social information processing, and social competence in school-aged children (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/275856163?accountid=16645
• Mares, D., McLuckie, A., Schwartz, M., & Saini, M. (2007). Executive function impairments in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Do they differ between school and home environments? The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(8), 527-534. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370705200811
• Martel, M. M. (2009). Research Review: A new perspective on attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: emotion dysregulation and trait models. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(9), 1042–1051. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02105.x
• Martel, M. M., & Nigg, J. T. (2006). Child ADHD and personality/temperament traits of reactive and effortful control, resiliency, and emotionality. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 47(11), 1175–1183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01629.x
• Matthys, W., Cuperus, J. M., & Van-Engeland, M. (1999). Deficient social problem-solving in boys with ODD/CD, with ADHD, and with both disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(3), 311-321.
• McGee, C. L., Bjorkquist, O. A., Price, J. M., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (2009). Social information processing skills in children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(6), 817–830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9313-5
• Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Sage.
• Milich, R., & Dodge, K. A. (1984). Social information processing in child psychiatric populations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12(3), 471-489. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00910660
• Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions of Psychological Science, 21, 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458
• Molitor, S. J., Oddo, L. E., Eadeh, H. M., & Langberg, J. M. (2019). Executive function deficits in adolescents with ADHD: Untangling possible sources of heterogeneity. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 27(3), 165-177. doi:10.1177/1063426618763125
• Moore, L. A., Hughes, J. N., & Robinson, M. (1992). A comparison of the social information-processing abilities of rejected and accepted hyperactive children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21(2), 123-131.https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15374424jccp2102_4
• Murphy, B. C., Shepard, S. A., Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (2004). Concurrent and across time prediction of young adolescents' social functioning: The role of emotionality and regulation. Social Development, 13(1), 56–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00257.x
• Nigg, J. T. (2006). What causes ADHD? Understanding what goes wrong and why. Guilford.
• Nijmeijer, J. S., Minderaa, R. B., Buitelaar, J. K., Mulligan, A., Hartman, C. A., & Hoekstra, P. J. (2008). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social dysfunctioning. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(4), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.003
• Özdemir, S. (2006). Burnout levels of Turkish teachers of students with AD/HD in Turkey: Comparison with teachers of non-AD/HD students. Education and Treatment of Children, 29 (4), 693-709.
• Özdemir, S. (2009a). Peer relationship problems of children with AD/HD: Risk factors and new directions in interventions. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 33(1), 42-59.
• Özdemir, S. (2009b) Peer functioning in children with ADHD: A review of current understanding and intervention options. Current Issues in Education, 12(10), 47-58.
• Özdemir, S. (2010a). A comparison of problem behavior profiles in Turkish children with AD/HD and non-AD/HD children. EJREP, 8 (1), 281-298.
• Özdemir, S. (2010c). Peer Relationship Problems of Children with AD/HD: Contributing Factors and Implications for Practice. International Journal of Special Education, 25(1), 185-194.
• Pelham, W. E., & Bender, M. E. (1982). Peer relationships in hyperactive children: Description and treatment. In K. Gadow & I. Bailer (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (Vol. 1, pp. 365– 436). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
• Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 37(1), 51–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x
• Quiggle, N. L., Garber, J., Panak, W. F., & Dodge, K. A. (1992). Social information processing in aggressive and depressed children. Child Development, 63(6), 1305-1320.
• Rubin, K. H., & Krasnor, L. R. (1983). Age and gender differences in solutions to hypothetical social problems. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 4, 263-275.https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(83)90022-9
• Sjöwall, D., Roth, L., Lindqvist, S., & Thorell, L. B. (2013). Multiple deficits in ADHD: Executive dysfunction, delay aversion, reaction time variability, and emotional deficits. Journal Of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(6), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12006
• Sonuga-Barke E. J. (2003). The dual pathway model of AD/HD: An elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27(7), 593–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.08.005
• Sparrow, E. P., & Erhardt, D. (2014). Essentials of ADHD assessment for children and adolescents. Hoboken.
• Thompson, R. A. (2006). The development of the person: Social understanding, relationships, conscience, self. In R. M. Lerner, W. Damon, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology (pp. 646–718).Wiley.
• Tur-Kaspa, H. (2002). Social cognition in learning disabilities. In B. Y. L. Wong & M. L. Donahue (Eds.), The social dimensions of learning disabilities (pp. 11- 31). Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Uekermann, J., Kraemer, M., Abdel-Hamid, M., Schimmelmann, B. G., Hebebrand, J., Daum, I., Wiltfang, J., & Kis, B. (2010). Social cognition in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(5), 734–743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.009
• Von Rhein, D., Oldehinkel, M., Beckmann, C. F., Oosterlaan, J., Heslenfeld, D., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Franke, B., Cools, R., Buitelaar, J. K., & Mennes, M. (2016). Aberrant local striatal functional connectivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal Of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, And Allied Disciplines, 57(6), 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12529
• Wehmeier, P. M., Schacht, A., & Barkley, R. A. (2010). Social and emotional impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact on quality of life. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 46(3), 209–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.09.009
• Weiss, B., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1992). Some consequences of early harsh discipline: Child aggression and a maladaptive social information processing style. Child Development, 63(6), 1321–1335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01697.x
• Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336-1346, available: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006.
• Wodka, E. L., Mostofsky, S. H., Prahme, C., Gidley Larson, J. C., Loftis, C., Denckla, M. B., & Mahone, E. M. (2008). Process examination of executive function in ADHD: Sex and subtype effects. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 826–841. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701563583