Yaşlanmada Bilişsel Egzersiz ve Rehabilitasyon

Yıl 2024, , 1 - 15, 31.03.2024

Hakan Karlı , Handan Can

https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1229218

Öz

Yaşlılık; biyolojik, psikolojik ve sosyo-kültürel süreçlerde ortaya çıkan ve giderek artan bozulmaların görüldüğü bir yaşam evresidir. Bu nedenle yaşlanmada gözlenen diğer tüm değişimlerle birlikte bilişsel değişim de kaçınılmazdır. İleri yetişkinlikte bilgileri işleme hızı, olayların nerede ve ne zaman gerçekleştiği gibi bağlamsal bilgileri hatırlama becerisi ve yönetici işlev performansı zayıflamaktadır. Üstelik bilişsel süreçlerdeki bu değişim, gündelik yaşamdaki işlevselliğin bozulmasına neden olmaktadır. Yaşlanmanın olumsuz etkilerinden korunmada fiziksel aktivite, beslenme ve sosyal desteğin anahtar rol oynadığı iyi bilinmekle birlikte bilişsel egzersiz ve rehabilitasyonların etkisi görece daha az araştırılmıştır. Bu derlemenin amacı, ileri yetişkinlerde bozulan bilişsel işlevlerin telafi edilmesine ya da belirli ölçülerde yeniden kazanılmasına yardımcı olmak için farklı bilişsel süreçlere (epizodik bellek, çalışma belleği, yönetici işlevler, dikkat, işleme hızı) yönelik uygulanan bilişsel egzersiz ve rehabilitasyon uygulamalarını incelemektir. Bu kapsamda uygulamaların etkinliği, kazanımların farklı bilişsel alanlara aktarımı ve uzun süreler korunup korunmadığı incelenmiş; bilişsel egzersiz ve rehabilitasyon gibi bilinçli ve sistematik uygulamaların yaşlanmanın olumsuz etkilerini azaltmadaki katkısı tartışılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

yaşlanma, bilişsel yaşlanma, bilişsel egzersiz, bilişsel rehabilitasyon

Cognitive Training and Rehabilitation in Aging

Öz

Aging is a life stage in which progressive deterioration occurs in biological, psychological, and socio-cultural processes. Therefore, along with all the other changes observed in aging, cognitive change is inevitable. In older adulthood, the speed of processing information, the ability to remember contextual information such as where and when events occur, and executive function performance are impaired. Moreover, this change in cognitive processes causes the deterioration of functionality in daily life. Although it is well known that physical activity, nutrition, and social support play a key role in preventing the adverse effects of aging, the impact of cognitive training and rehabilitation have been relatively less studied. This review aims to examine cognitive training and rehabilitation practices applied to different cognitive processes (episodic memory, working memory, executive functions, attention and processing speed) to help compensate for or regain cognitive functions that are impaired in older adults. In this context, the effectiveness of the practices, the transfer of gains to different cognitive areas, and whether they are preserved for long periods were examined. The contribution of conscious and systematic practices, such as cognitive training and rehabilitation, in reducing the adverse effects of aging has been discussed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

aging, cognitive aging, cognitive training, cognitive rehabilitation

Kaynakça

• Anand R, Chapman SB, Rackley A, Keebler M, Zientz J, Hart J (2011) Gist reasoning training in cognitively normal seniors. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 26:961-968.
• Anderson MC (2020) Episodic memory: organizing and remembering. In Memory (Eds Baddeley A, Eysenck MW, Anderson, MC):71-105. New York, Routledge.
• Anderson ND, Ebert PL, Grady CL, Jennings JM (2018) Repetition lag training eliminates age-related recollection deficits (and gains are maintained after three months) but does not transfer: implications for the fractionation of recollection. Psychol Aging, 33:93-108.
• Anderson ND, Winocur G (2020) Cognitive rehabilitation in healthy aging. In Cognitive Changes and the Aging Brain (Eds KM Heilman, SE Nadeau):278-290. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Baddeley A (2020) Working memory. In Memory (Eds A Baddeley, MW Eysenck, MC Anderson):163-202. New York, Routledge.
• Bahar-Fuchs A, Clare L, Woods B (2013) Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for persons with mild to moderate dementia of the Alzheimer’s or vascular type: a review. Alzheimers Res Ther, 5:35.
• Bahar-Fuchs A, Martyr A, Goh AM, Sabates J, Clare L (2019) Cognitive training for people with mild to moderate dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 3:CD013069.
• Bailey H, Dagenbach D, Jennings, JM (2011) The locus of the benefits of repetition-lag memory training. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn, 18:577-593.
• Balash Y, Mordechovich M, Shabtai H, Giladi N, Gurevich T, Korczyn AD (2013) Subjective memory complaints in elders: depression, anxiety, or cognitive decline? Acta Neurol Scand, 127:344-350.
• Ball KK, Beard BL, Roenker DL, Miller RL, Griggs DS (1988) Age and visual search: expanding the useful field of view. J Opt Soc Am A, 5:2210-2219.
• Ball K, Berch DB, Helmers KF, Jobe JB, Leveck MD, Marsiske M et al. (2002) Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 288:2271-2281.
• Ball K, Edwards JD, Ross LA (2007) The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday functions. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 62:19-31.
• Belleville S, Gilbert B, Fontaine F, Gagnon L, Ménard E, Gauthier S (2006) Improvement of episodic memory in persons with mild cognitive impairment and healthy older adults: evidence from a cognitive intervention program. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 22:486-499.
• Belleville S, Mellah S, de Boysson C, Demonet J-F, Bier B (2014) The pattern and loci of training-induced brain changes in healthy older adults are predicted by the nature of the intervention. PloS One, 9:e102710.
• Bier B, de Boysson C, Belleville S (2014) Identifying training modalities to improve multitasking in older adults. Age (Dordr), 36:9688.
• Bennett T (2001) Neuropsychological evaluation in rehabilitation planning and evaluation of functional skills. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 16:237-253.
• Bherer L, Kramer AF, Peterson MS, Colcombe S, Erickson K, Becic E (2008) Transfer effects in task-set cost and dual-task cost after dual-task training in older and younger adults: further evidence for cognitive plasticity in attentional control in late adulthood. Exp Aging Res, 34:188-219.
• Borella E, Carretti B, Cantarella A, Riboldi F, Zavagnin M, De Beni R (2014) Benefits of training visuospatial working memory in young–old and old–old. Dev Psychol, 50:714-727.
• Borella E, Carretti B, De Beni R (2008) Working memory and inhibition across the adult life-span. Acta Psychol, 128:33-44.
• Borella E, Carretti B, Riboldi F, De Beni R (2010) Working memory training in older adults: evidence of transfer and maintenance effects. Psychol Aging, 25:767-778.
• Borella E, Carretti B, Sciore R, Capotosto E, Taconnat L, Cornoldi C, De Beni, R (2017) Training working memory in older adults: is there an advantage of using strategies? Psychol Aging, 32:178-191.
• Bower GH (1970) Analysis of a mnemonic device. Am Sci, 58:496-510.
• Brehmer Y, Rieckmann A, Bellander M, Westerberg H, Fischer H, Bäckman L (2011) Neural correlates of training-related working-memory gains in old age. NeuroImage, 58:1110-1120.
• Brehmer Y, Westerberg H, Bäckman L (2012) Working-memory training in younger and older adults: training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Front Hum Neurosci, 6:63.
• Brush JA, Camp CJ (1998a) A Therapy Technique for Improving Memory: Spaced Retrieval. Ohio, Menorah Park.
• Brush JA, Camp CJ (1998b) Using spaced retrieval as an intervention during speech-language therapy. Clin Gerontol, 19:51-64.
• Burgess PW, Simons JS (2005) Theories of frontal lobe executive function: clinical applications. In the Effectiveness of Rehabilitation for Cognitive Deficits (Eds IPW Halligan, DT Wade). Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Buschert V, Bokde AL, Hampel H (2010) Cognitive intervention in alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurol, 6:508-517.
• Buschkuehl M, Jaeggi SM, Hutchison S, Perrig-Chiello P, Däpp C, Müller M et al. (2008) Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults. Psychol Aging, 23:743-753.
• Buschkuehl M, Jaeggi SM, Jonides J (2012) Neuronal effects following working memory training. Dev Cogn Neurosci, 2:S167-S179.
• Cavanaugh JC, Blanchard-Fields F (2019) Adult Development and Aging. Boston, Cengage.
• Chapman SB, Aslan S, Spence JS, Hart JJJr, Bartz EK, Didehbani N et al. (2015) Neural mechanisms of brain plasticity with complex cognitive training in healthy seniors. Cereb Cortex, 25:396 405.
• Chapman SB, Spence JS, Aslan S, Keebler MW (2017) Enhancing innovation and underlying neural mechanisms via cognitive training in healthy older adults. Front Aging Neurosci, 9:314.
• Cisneros E, Beauséjour V, de Guise E, Belleville S, McKerral M (2021) The impact of multimodal cognitive rehabilitation on executive functions in older adults with traumatic brain injury. Ann Phys Rehabil, 64:101559.
• Clare L (2008) Neuropsychological Rehabilitation and People with Dementia. London, Psychology Press.
• Clare L, Woods RT (2004) Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for people with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease: a review. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 14:385-401.
• Clare L, Woods RT, Moniz Cook ED, Orrell M, Spector A (2003) Cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive training for early-stage alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 4:CD003260.
• Cohen-Mansfield J, Cohen R, Buettner L, Eyal N, Jakobovits H, Rebok G et al. (2015) Interventions for older persons reporting memory difficulties: a randomized controlled pilot study. Int. J Geriatr Psychiatry, 30:478-486.
• Conway ARA, Cowan N, Bunting MF, Therriault DJ, Minkoff SRB (2002) A latent variable analysis of working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, processing speed, and general fluid intelligence. Intelligence, 30:163-183.
• Cosco TD, Prina AM, Perales J, Stephan BCM, Brayne C (2014) Operational definitions of successful aging: a systematic review. Int Psychogeriatr, 26:373-281
• Dahlin E, Nyberg L, Bäckman L, Neely AS (2008) Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psychol Aging, 23:720-730.
• Dawson D, Richardson J, Troyer A, Binns M, Clark A, Polatajko H et al. (2013) An occupation-based strategy training approach to managing age-related executive changes: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil, 28:118-127.
• De Lange AG, Brathen ACS, Rohani DA, Grydeland H, Fjell AM, Walhovd KB (2017) The effects of memory training on behavioral and microstructural plasticity in young and older adults. Hum Brain Mapp, 38:5666-5680.
• Dempster FN (1992) The rise and fall of the inhibitory mechanism: toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging. Dev Rev, 12:45-75.
• Denny KG, Chan ML, Gravano J, Harvey D, Meyer OL, Huss O et al. (2023) A randomized control trial of a behavioral intervention for older adults with subjective cognitive complaints that combines cognitive rehabilitation strategies and lifestyle modifications. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn, 30:78-93.
• Dunn J, Clare L (2007) Learning face-name associations in early-stage dementia: comparing the effects of errorless learning and effortful processing. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 17:735-754.
• Edwards JD, Fausto BA, Tetlow AM, Corona RT, Valdés EG (2018) Systematic review and meta-analyses of useful field of view cognitive training. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 84:72-91.
• Edwards JD, Xu H, Clark DO, Guey LT, Ross LA, Unverzagt FW (2017) Speed of processing training results in lower risk of dementia. Alzheimers Dement, 3:603-611.
• Engvig A, Fjell AM, Westlye LT, Moberget T, Sundseth O, Larsen VA et al. (2010) Effects of memory training on cortical thickness in the elderly. NeuroImage, 52:1667-1676.
• Erickson KI, Colcombe SJ, Wadhwa R, Bherer L, Peterson MS, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Alvarado M, Kramer AF (2007) Training-induced plasticity in older adults: effects of training on hemispheric asymmetry. Neurobiol Aging, 28:272-283.
• Fairchild JK, Scogin FR (2010) Training to enhance adult memory (TEAM): an investigation of the effectiveness of a memory training program with older adults. Aging Ment Health, 14:364-373.
• Fjell AM, Sneve MH, Grydeland H, Storsve AB, Walhovd KB (2017) The disconnected brain and executive function decline in aging. Cereb Cortex, 27:2303-2317.
• Forbes D, Forbes S, Morgan DG, Markle-Reid M, Wood J, Culum I (2008) Physical activity programs for persons with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 3:CD006489.
• Frankenmolen NL, Overdorp EJ, Fasotti L, Claassen JAHR, Kessels RPC, Oosterman JM (2018) Memory strategy training in older adults with subjective memory complaints: a randomized controlled trial. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 24:1110-1120.
• Gillespie A, Best C, O’Neill B (2012) Cognitive function and assistive technology for cognition: a systematic review. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 18:1-19.
• Goghari VM, Lawlor-Savage L (2017) Comparison of cognitive change after working memory training and logic and planning training in healthy older adults. Front Aging Neurosci, 9:39.
• Gross AL, Parisi JM, Spira AP, Kueider AM, Ko JY, Saczynski JS et al. (2012) Memory training interventions for older adults: a meta-analysis. Aging Ment Health, 16:722-734.
• Hale S, Rose NS, Myerson J, Strube MJ, Sommers M, Tye-Murray N et al. (2011) The structure of working memory abilities across the adult life span. Psychol Aging, 26:92-110.
• Hasher L, Lustig C, Zacks R (2007) Inhibitory mechanisms and the control of attention. In Variation in Working Memory (Eds ARA Conway, C Jarrold, MJ Kane, A Miyake, JN Towse):227–249. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Haslam C, Kessels RPC (2018) “Make no mistake”: errorless learning and its application in rehabilitation. In Errorless Learning in Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: Mechanisms, Efficacy and Application (Eds C Haslam, RPC Kessels):3 11. New York, Routledge.
• Heinzel S, Rimpel J, Stelzel C, Rapp MA (2017) Transfer effects to a multimodal dual-task after working memory training and associated neural correlates in older adults: a pilot study. Front Hum Neurosci, 11:85.
• Heinzel S, Schulte S, Onken J, Duong QL, Riemer TG, Heinz A et al. (2014) Working memory training improvements and gains in non-trained cognitive tasks in young and older adults. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn, 21:146-173.
• Iliffe S, Pealing L (2010) Subjective memory problems. BMJ, 340:c1425.
• Jennings JM, Jacoby LL (2003) Improving memory in older adults: training recollection. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 13:417-440.
• Jennings JM, Webster LM, Kleykamp BA, Dagenbach D (2005) Recollection training and transfer effects in older adults: successful use of a repetition-lag procedure. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn, 12:278-298.
• Jessen F, Amariglio RE, van Boxtel M, Breteler M, Ceccaldi M, Chételat G et al. (2014) A conceptual framework for research on subjective cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement, 10:844-852.
• Karbach J, Verhaeghen P (2014) Making working memory work. Psychol Sci, 25:2027-2037.
• Kaschel R, Della Sala S, Cantagallo A, Fahlböck A, Laaksonen R, Kazen M (2002) Imagery mnemonics for the rehabilitation of memory: a randomised group controlled trial. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 12:127-153.
• Kelly ME, O’Sullivan M (2015) Strategies and Techniques for Cognitive Rehabilitation: Manual For Healthcare Professionals Working With Individuals with Cognitive Impairment. Dublin, Alzheimer Society of Ireland.
• Kim H, Lee J, Man Chang S, Kim BS (2022) Effects of a cognitive rehabilitation program based on mnemonic skills and memory compensatory strategies for older adults: a pilot study. Medicine:101:e29581.
• Kinsella GJ, Mullaly E, Rand E, Ong B, Burton C, Price S et al. (2009) Early intervention for mild cognitive impairment: a randomised controlled trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 80:730-736.
• Kirchhoff BA, Anderson BA, Smith SE, Barch DM, Jacoby LL (2012) Cognitive training related changes in hippocampal activity associated with recollection in older adults. NeuroImage, 62:1956-1964.
• Klingberg T (2010) Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends Cogn Sci, 14:317-324.
• Klingberg T, Forssberg H, Westerberg H (2002) Training of working memory in children with ADHD. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 24:781-791.
• Knapp M, Thorgrimsen L, Patel A, Spector A, Hallam A, Woods B et al. (2006) Cognitive stimulation therapy for people with dementia: cost-effectiveness analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 188:574-580.
• Koen JD, Yonelinas AP (2014) The effects of healthy aging, amnestic mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer’s disease on recollection and familiarity: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychol Rev, 24:332-354.
• Kramer AF, Larish JF, Strayer DL (1995) Training for attentional control in dual task settings: A comparison of young and old adults. J Exp Psychol Appl, 1:50-76.
• Krivanek TJ, Gale SA, McFeeley BM, Nicastri CM, Daffner KR (2021) Promoting successful cognitive aging: a ten-year update. J Alzheimers Dis, 81:871-920.
• Lampit A, Hallock H, Valenzuela M (2014) Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PloS Med, 11:e1001756.
• Levine B, Robertson IH, Clare L, Carter G, Hong J, Wilson BA et al. (2000) Rehabilitation of executive functioning: An experimental clinical validation of goal management training. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 6:299-312.
• Levine B, Stuss DT, Winocur G, Binns MA, Fahy L, Mandic M et al. (2007) Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: effects on strategic behavior in relation to goal management. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 13:143-152.
• Li S-C, Schmiedek F, Huxhold O, Röcke C, Smith J, Lindenberger U (2008) Working memory plasticity in old age: practice gain, transfer, and maintenance. Psychol Aging, 23:731-742.
• Lövdén M, Bäckman L, Lindenberger U, Schaefer S, Schmiedek F (2010) A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychol Bull, 136:659-676.
• Lussier M, Bugaiska A, Bherer L (2017) Specific transfer effects following variable priority dual-task training in older adults. Restor Neurol Neurosci, 35:237-250.
• Lustig C, Flegal KE (2008) Targeting latent function: encouraging effective encoding for successful memory training and transfer. Psychol Aging, 23:754-764.
• McAvinue LP, Golemme M, Castorina M, Tatti E, Pigni FM, Salomone S et al. (2013) An evaluation of a working memory training scheme in older adults. Front Aging Neurosci, 5:20.
• McDowd JM (1986) The effects of age and extended practice on divided attention performance. J Gerontol, 41:764 769.
• McDowd JM, Shaw RJ (2000) Attention and aging: a functional perspective. In The Handbook of Aging and Cognition (Eds FIM Craik, TA Salthouse):221-292. New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Meade ME, Wammes JD, Fernandes MA (2018) Drawing as an encoding tool: memorial benefits in younger and older adults. Exp Aging Res, 44:369 396.
• Mendonça MD, Alves L, Bugalho P (2016) From subjective cognitive complaints to dementia: who is at risk? a systematic review. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Dement, 31:105-114.
• Merzenich MM, Van Vleet TM, Nahum M (2014) Brain plasticity-based therapeutics. Front Hum Neurosci, 8:385.
• Metternich B, Kosch D, Kriston L, Härter M, Hüll M (2010) The effects of nonpharmacological interventions on subjective memory complaints: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychother Psychosom, 79:6-19.
• Mimura M, Komatsu S (2007) Cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive training for mild dementia. Psychogeriatrics, 7:137-143.
• Motes MA, Yezhuvath US, Aslan S, Spence JS, Rypma B, Chapman SB (2018) Higher-order cognitive training effects on processing speed–related neural activity: a randomized trial. Neurobiol Aging, 62:72-81.
• Najar J, Östling S, Gudmundsson P, Sundh V, Johansson L, Kern S et al. (2019) Cognitive and physical activity and dementia: a 44-year longitudinal population study of women. Neurology, 92:e1322-e1330.
• Norris D, Kalm K, Hall J (2020) Chunking and redintegration in verbal short-term memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn, 46:872-893.
• Nyberg L, Maitland SB, Ronnlund M, Backman L, Dixon RA, Wahlin A et al. (2003) Selective adult age differences in an age-invariant multifactor model of declarative memory. Psychol Aging, 18:149-160.
• Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK (2002) Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychol Aging, 17:299-320.
• Park DC, Reuter-Lorenz P (2009) The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annu Rev Psychol, 60:173-196.
• Park DC, Smith AD, Lautenschlager G, Earles JL, Frieske D, Zwahr M et al. (1996) Mediators of long-term memory performance across the life span. Psychol Aging, 11:621-637.
• Park JS, Jung YJ, Lee G (2020) Virtual reality-based cognitive-motor rehabilitation in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled study on motivation and cognitive function. Healthc, 8:335.
• Payne BR, Stine-Morrow EAL (2017) The effects of home-based cognitive training on verbal working memory and language comprehension in older adulthood. Front Aging Neurosci, 9:256.
• Polatajko HJ, Mandich A (2004) Enabling Occupation in Children: The Cognitive Orientation to Daily Occupational Performance (CO-OP) Approach. Ottawa, CAOT.
• Ponds RW, Commissaris KJ, Jolles J (1997) Prevalence and covariates of subjective forgetfulness in a normal population in The Netherlands. Int J Aging Hum Dev, 45:207-221.
• Rabipour S, Raz A (2012) Training the brain: fact and fad in cognitive and behavioral remediation. Brain Cogn, 79:159-179.
• Rapp S, Brenes G, Marsh AP (2002) Memory enhancement training for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a preliminary study. Aging Ment Health, 6:5-11.
• Rebok GW, Ball K, Guey LT, Jones RN, Kim HY et al. (2014) Ten-year effects of the advanced cognitive training for independent and vital elderly cognitive training trial on cognition and everyday functioning in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc, 62:16-24.
• Richmond LL, Morrison AB, Chein JM, Olson IR (2011) Working memory training and transfer in older adults. Psychol Aging, 26:813-822.
• Roenker DL, Cissell GM, Ball KK, Wadley VG, Edwards JD (2003) Speed-of-processing and driving simulator training result in improved driving performance. Int J Hum Factors Ergon, 45:218-233.
• Rozzini L, Costardi D, Chilovi BV, Franzoni S, Trabucchi M, Padovani A (2007) Efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in patients with mild cognitive impairment treated with cholinesterase inhibitors. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 22:356-360.
• Rusted JM, Marsh R, Bledski L, Sheppard L (1997) Alzheimer patients’ use of auditory and olfactory cues to aid verbal memory. Aging Ment Health, 1:364-371.
• Salminen T, Frensch P, Strobach T, Schubert T (2015) Age-specific differences of dual n back training. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn, 23:18-39.
• Salthouse TA (1996) The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition.Psychol Rev, 103:403-428.
• Salthouse TA (2010) Selective review of cognitive aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 16:754-760.
• Salthouse TA, Atkinson TM, Berish DE (2003) Executive functioning as a potential mediator of age-related cognitive decline in normal adults. J Exp Psychol Gen, 132:566-594.
• Salthouse TA, Fristoe NM, Lineweaver TT, Coon VE (1995) Aging of attention: does the ability to divide decline? Mem Cognit, 23:59-71.
• Saykin AJ, Rabin LA (2014) Dementias and neurodegenerative diseases. In Clinical neuropsychology: A Pocket Handbook For Assessment (Eds MW Parsons, TA Hammeke, PJ Snyder):287-313. Washington DC, American Psychological Association.
• Sharma I, Srivastava J, Kumar A, Sharma R (2016) Cognitive remediation therapy for older adults. J Geriatr Ment Health, 3:57-65.
• Shinaver CS, Entwistle PC, Söderqvist S (2014) Cogmed WM training: reviewing the reviews. Appl Neuropsychol Child, 3:163-172.
• Sitzer DI, Twamley EW, Jeste DV (2006) Cognitive training in alzheimer’s disease: a meta analysis of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 114:75-90.
• Small BJ, Rawson KS, Eisel S, McEvoy CL (2012) Memory and aging. In The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Adulthood and Aging (Eds SK Whitbourne, MJ Sliwinski):174-190. New York, Wiley Blackwell.
• Smith G, Butts A (2018) Dementia. In Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychology (Eds JE Morgan, JH Ricker):603-618. New York, Routledge.
• Spector A, Thorgrimsen L, Woods B, Royan L, Davies S, Butterworth M et al. (2003) Efficacy of an evidence-based cognitive stimulation therapy programme for people with dementia: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry, 183:248-254.
• Spikman JM (2017) Rehabilitation of executive functions: a) adult. In Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: The International Handbook (Eds BA Wilson, J Winegardner, CM Heugten,T Ownsworth):172-179. New York, Routledge.
• Stamenova V, Jennings JM, Cook SP, Walker LA, Smith AM, Davidson PS (2014) Training recollection in healthy older adults: clear improvements on the training task, but little evidence of transfer. Front Hum Neurosci, 8:898.
• Takeuchi H, Kawashima R (2012) Effects of processing speed training on cognitive functions and neural systems. Rev Neurosci, 23:289-301.
• Thalmann M, Souza AS, Oberauer K (2019) How does chunking help working memory? J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn, 45:37-55.
• Tromp D, Dufour A, Lithfous S, Pebayle T, Despres O (2015) Episodic memory in normal aging and alzheimer disease: insights from imaging and behavioral studies. Ageing Res Rev, 24:232-262.
• Tusch ES, Alperin BR, Ryan E, Holcomb PJ, Mohammed AH, Daffner KR (2016) Changes in neural activity underlying working memory after computerized cognitive training in older adults. Front Aging Neurosci, 8:255.
• United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022) World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results. New York, United Nations.
• Van Hooren SA, Valentijn SA, Bosma H, Ponds RW, van Boxtel MP, Levine B, Robertson I, Jolles J (2007) Effect of a structured course involving goal management training in older adults: a randomised controlled trial. Patient Educ Couns, 65:205-213.
• Vermeij A, Claassen JAHR, Dautzenberg PLJ, Kessels RPC (2015) Transfer and maintenance effects of online working-memory training in normal ageing and mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 26:783-809.
• Vermeij A, Kessels RPC, Heskamp L, Simons EMF, Dautzenberg PLJ, Claassen JAHR (2016) Prefrontal activation may predict working-memory training gain in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment. Brain Imaging Behav, 11:141-154.
• Von Bastian CC, Langer N, Jäncke L, Oberauer K (2012) Effects of working memory training in young and old adults. Mem Cognit, 41:611-624.
• Wayne RV, Hamilton C, Jones Huyck J, Johnsrude IS (2016) Working memory training and speech in noise comprehension in older adults. Front Aging Neurosci, 8:49.
• Whitbourne SK, Whitbourne SB, Konnert C (2015) Adult Development & Aging: Biopsychosocial Perspectives. Toronto, Wiley.
• Willis SL, Tennstedt SL, Marsiske M, Ball K, Elias J, Koepke KM et al. (2006) Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. JAMA, 296:2805-2814.
• Wilson BA (2002) Towards a comprehensive model of cognitive rehabilitation. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 12:97-110.
• Wilson BA, Baddeley A, Evans J, Shiel A (1994) Errorless learning in the rehabilitation of memory impaired people. Neuropsychol Rehabil, 4:307-326.
• Wilson BA, Fish JE (2018) The past, present, and future of errorless learning in memory rehabilitation. In Errorless Learning in Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: Mechanisms, Efficacy and Application (Eds C Haslam & RPC Kessels):11-26. New York, Routledge.
• Wilson BA, Gracey F, Malley D, Bateman A, Evans JJ (2009) The Oliver Zangwill Centre approach to neuropsychological rehabilitation. In Neuropsychological Rehabilitation: Theory, Models, Therapy and Outcome (Eds BA Wilson, F Gracey, JJ Evans, A Bateman):47-67. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Yates FA (1966) The Art of Memory. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
• Yates LA, Ziser S, Spector A, Orrell M (2016) Cognitive leisure activities and future risk of cognitive impairment and dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Psychogeriatr, 28:1791-1806.
• Ylvisaker M, Hanks R, Johnson-Greene D (2002) Perspectives on rehabilitation of individuals with cognitive impairment after brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil, 17:191-209.
• Zelinski EM (2009) Far transfer in cognitive training of older adults. Restor Neurol Neurosci, 27:455-471.
• Zhang H, Huntley J, Bhome R, Holmes B, Cahill J, Gould RL et al. (2019) Effect of computerised cognitive training on cognitive outcomes in mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 9:e027062.
• Zimmermann K, von Bastian CC, Röcke C, Martin M, Eschen A (2016) Transfer after process-based object-location memory training in healthy older adults. Psychol Aging, 31:798-814.
• Zinke K, Zeintl M, Eschen A, Herzog C, Kliegel M (2012) Potentials and limits of plasticity induced by working memory training in old-old Age. Gerontology, 58:79-87.
• Zinke K, Zeintl M, Rose NS, Putzmann J, Pydde A, Kliegel M (2014) Working memory training and transfer in older adults: Effects of age, baseline performance, and training gains. Dev Psychol, 50:304-315.