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Neurobiological Components of Sexual Identity Development and Epigenetic Effects of Environmental Stressors

Yıl 2024, , 175 - 184, 31.03.2024
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1238867

Öz

In this review, we explore the intricate development of sexual identity, drawing insights from genetic, endocrinological, neuroanatomical, and neurophysiological studies. Gender identity, encapsulating an individual's internal perception as male or female, undergoes a nuanced and gradual formation, commencing early in life and progressing through distinct stages. Gender nonconformity delineates behaviors that diverge from culturally prescribed norms, while gender dysphoria encompasses the emotional distress experienced by some individuals due to a mismatch between their gender identity and assigned sex at birth. The genesis of sexual identity involves multifaceted processes spanning numerous years. Human sex differentiation involves the suppression or inactivation of specific genes, a phenomenon illuminated by genetic investigations into gender dysphoria, which have shown comparable rates of genetic variations to the general population. Nevertheless, twin studies suggest an augmented likelihood of transsexuality among family members, hinting at potential environmental influences. Brain sexual differentiation occurs during mid-to-late pregnancy due to the impact of gonadal hormones. The mechanisms underpinning the loss of feminine brain characteristics and subsequent masculinization likely involve a combination of factors, indicating a complex interplay rather than a singular cause. Studies propose that human sexual behavior is not governed by a solitary gene but rather by a network of genes dispersed across the genome. Notably, disparities in brain structures, functionalities between genders, as well as variations in endocrine and serotonin-dopamine levels, are implicated in the etiology of gender dysphoria, contributing to the understanding of this complex phenomenon situated between genders.

Kaynakça

  • Agana M, Greydanus D, Indyk J, Calles J, Kushner J, Leibowitz S et al. (2019) Caring for the transgender adolescent and young adult: Current concepts of an evolving process in the 21st century. Dis Mon, 65:303-356.
  • Akdemir A, Güriz O, Örsel S, Karaoğlan A (2006) Erkek pseudohermafroditizmi: Bir olgu sunumu. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 9:49-52.
  • APA (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5). Washington DC, American Psychiatric Association.
  • Arnoldussen M, Rooy FB, DeVries AL, Miesen AI, Popma A, Steensma TD(2022) Demographics and gender-related measures in younger and older adolescents presenting to a gender service. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, doi: 10.1007/s00787-022-02082-8.
  • Avcı A,Önder Z, Sezgin F, Yüksel B (1996) Konjenital adrenal hiperplazide cinsel kimlik karmaşası: bir olgu sunumu. PsychoMed, 2:152-154.
  • Baba T, Endo T, Honnma H, Kitajima Y, Hayashi T, Ikeda Het al. (2007) Association between polycystic ovary syndrome and female-to-male transsexuality. Hum Reprod, 22:1011-1016.
  • Bailey JM, Dunne MP, Martin NG (2000) Genetic and environmental ınfluences on sexual orientation and ıts correlates in an australian twin sample. J Pers Soc Psychol, 78:524-536.
  • Beatrice A, Sumana K, Mengade MG (2019) Juvenile autoimmune hypothyroidism and gender dysphoria:a causal relationship or a casual coincidence?.Indian J Endocrinol Metab, 23:166-167.
  • Bentz EK, Hefler AL, Kaufmann U, Huber JC, Kolbus A, TempferCB (2008) A Polymorphism of the cyp17 gene related to sex steroid metabolism ıs associated with female-to-male but not male-to-female transsexualism. Fertil Steril, 90:56-59.
  • Blanchard R, Zucker KJ, Bradley SJ, Hume CS (1995) Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual male adolescents and probably prehomosexual feminine boys. Dev Psychol, 31:22-30.
  • Carrel L, Willard HF (2005) X-ınactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females.Nature, 434:400-404.
  • Cohen-Kettenis PT, Owen A, Kaijser VG, Bradley SJ, Zucker KJ (2003) Demographic characteristics, social competence, and behavior problems in children with gender identity disorder:a cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 31:41-53.
  • Coolidge FL, Thede LL, Young SE (2002) The heritability of gender ıdentity disorder in a child and adolescent twin sample. Behav Genet, 32:251-257.
  • Daae E, Feragen KB, Waehre A, Nermoen I, Falhammar H(2020) Sexual orientation in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia:a systematic review. Front Behav, 14:38.
  • Davies W, Isles AR, Burgoyne PS, Wilkinson LS (2006) X-linked imprinting: Effects on brain and behaviour. Bioessays, 28:35-44.
  • Diamond LM, and Butterworth M (2008) Questioning gender and sexual identity: Dynamic links over time. Sex Roles, 59:365-376.
  • Egan SK, Perry DG (2001) Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Dev Psychol, 37:451-463.
  • Ellis L, Cole-Harding S (2001) The effects of prenatal stress, and of prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure, on human sexual orientation. Physiol Behav, 74:213-226.
  • Fagot BI (1977) Teachers’ reinforcement of sex-preferred behaviors in Dutch preschools.Psychol Rep, 41:1249-1250.
  • Galambos NL, Almeida DM, Petersen AC (1990) Masculinity, femininity, and sex role attitudes in early adolescence:exploring gender ıntensification. Child Dev, 61:1905-1914.
  • Ganna A, Verweij KJ, Nivard MG, Maier R, Wedow R, Busch AS et al. (2019) Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. Science, 365:112-114.
  • Gómez-Gil E, Esteva I, Almaraz MC, Pasaro E, Segovia S, Guillamon A (2009) Familiality of gender identity disorder in non-twin siblings. Arch Sex Behav, 39:546-552.
  • Gooren L(1990) The endocrinology of transsexualism:a review and commentary. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 15:3-14.
  • Green R (1976) One-hundred ten feminine and masculine boys:behavioral contrasts and demographic similarities. Arch Sex Behav, 5:425-446.
  • Green Rand Keverne EB (2000) The disparate maternal aunt-uncle ratio in male transsexuals:an explanation invoking genomic imprinting. J Theor Biol, 202:55-63.
  • Green R (2000) Family cooccurrence of ‘gender dysphoria’: ten sibling or parent–child pairs. Arch Sex Behav, 29:499-507.
  • Güneş H (2010)Demographic characteristics and behavior problems of childrens with gender identity problems and child rearing practices, marital and sexual adjustment and gender roles of their parents [Postgraduate thesis]. Istanbul, Istanbul University.
  • Hammack-Aviran C, Eilmus A, Diehl C, Gottlieb KG, Gonzales G, Davis LK et al. (2022) LGBTQ+ Perspectives on conducting genomic research on sexual orientation and gender identity. Behav Genet, 52:246-267.
  • Hengstschläger M, Trotsenburg MV, Repa C, Marton E, Huber JC, BernaschekG (2003) Sex chromosome aberrations and transsexualism. Fertil Steril, 79:639-640.
  • Henningsson S, Westberg L, Nilsson S, Lundström B, Ekselius L, Bodlund O et al. (2005) Sex steroid-related genes and male-to-female transsexualism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30:657-664.
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  • Hines M, Ahmed SF, Hughes IA (2003) Psychological outcomes and gender-related development in complete androgen ınsensitivity syndrome. Arch Sex Behav, 32:93-101.
  • Holmes L, Watts-Overall TM, Slettevold E, Gruia DC, Raines J, Rieger G (2021) Sexual orientation, sexual arousal, and finger length ratios in women.Arch Sex Behav, 23:14-16.
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Cinsel Kimlik Gelişiminin Nörobiyolojik Yapıtaşları ve Çevresel Stresörlerin Epigenetik Etkileri

Yıl 2024, , 175 - 184, 31.03.2024
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1238867

Öz

Bu gözden geçirmede cinsel kimlik gelişimini bu konuda yapılan genetik, endokrinolojik, nöroanatomik, nörofizyolojik çalışmaların ışığında açıklanması hedeflenmiştir. Cinsel kimlik bireyin kendisini öznel olarak kadın ya da erkek olarak algılamasını ifade eder. Cinsel kimlik gelişiminin erken yaşlarda başladığı, uzun yıllar süren aşamalı bir süreç olduğu ve çeşitli aşamalardan geçtiği belirtilmektedir. Cinsiyet uygunsuzluğu kültürel olarak tanımlanan normlara uymayan cinsiyet rol davranışını belirtir. Cinsiyet hoşnutsuzluğu ise, cinsiyet uyumsuzluğu olan bazı bireylerin yaşayabileceği duygusal karmaşa veya sıkıntıyı ifade etmektedir. İnsanlarda cinsiyet farklılaşması bazı genlerin basımlanması ya da inaktivasyonu ile meydana gelmektedir. Cinsiyet hoşnutsuzluğ örneklemlerindeki genetik araştırmalar rutin moleküler karyotiplemede değişiklik oranlarının genel popülasyona benzer olduğunu göstermiştir. Ancak yapılan ikiz çalışmalarında aile üyeleri arasında artan transseksüelite riski paylaşılmış çevrenin de etken olabileceğini düşündürmüştür. İnsanlarda beynin cinsel yönden farklılaşması gonadal hormonlar etkisi ile gebeliğin ortası/sonlarında olmaktadır. Eldeki veriler değerlendirildiğinde beynin dişil özelliklerinin kaybolması ve erkeksileşmesi için olasılıkla birden fazla mekanizmanın rol oynayabileceği düşünülebilir. Yapılan çalışmalar insanlarda cinsel davranışın tek bir gen tarafından belirlenmediğini, tüm genoma yayılmış çoklu genlerce belirlendiğini düşündürmektedir. Erkek ve kadın beyni yapı ve işlevlerin farklı olması, endokrinolojik ve serotonin- dopamin düzeyinde ki farklılıklar cinsiyetler arasında CH etiyolojisinde etkili olabilir.

Destekleyen Kurum

Destekleyen kurum bulunmamaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Agana M, Greydanus D, Indyk J, Calles J, Kushner J, Leibowitz S et al. (2019) Caring for the transgender adolescent and young adult: Current concepts of an evolving process in the 21st century. Dis Mon, 65:303-356.
  • Akdemir A, Güriz O, Örsel S, Karaoğlan A (2006) Erkek pseudohermafroditizmi: Bir olgu sunumu. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 9:49-52.
  • APA (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5). Washington DC, American Psychiatric Association.
  • Arnoldussen M, Rooy FB, DeVries AL, Miesen AI, Popma A, Steensma TD(2022) Demographics and gender-related measures in younger and older adolescents presenting to a gender service. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, doi: 10.1007/s00787-022-02082-8.
  • Avcı A,Önder Z, Sezgin F, Yüksel B (1996) Konjenital adrenal hiperplazide cinsel kimlik karmaşası: bir olgu sunumu. PsychoMed, 2:152-154.
  • Baba T, Endo T, Honnma H, Kitajima Y, Hayashi T, Ikeda Het al. (2007) Association between polycystic ovary syndrome and female-to-male transsexuality. Hum Reprod, 22:1011-1016.
  • Bailey JM, Dunne MP, Martin NG (2000) Genetic and environmental ınfluences on sexual orientation and ıts correlates in an australian twin sample. J Pers Soc Psychol, 78:524-536.
  • Beatrice A, Sumana K, Mengade MG (2019) Juvenile autoimmune hypothyroidism and gender dysphoria:a causal relationship or a casual coincidence?.Indian J Endocrinol Metab, 23:166-167.
  • Bentz EK, Hefler AL, Kaufmann U, Huber JC, Kolbus A, TempferCB (2008) A Polymorphism of the cyp17 gene related to sex steroid metabolism ıs associated with female-to-male but not male-to-female transsexualism. Fertil Steril, 90:56-59.
  • Blanchard R, Zucker KJ, Bradley SJ, Hume CS (1995) Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual male adolescents and probably prehomosexual feminine boys. Dev Psychol, 31:22-30.
  • Carrel L, Willard HF (2005) X-ınactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females.Nature, 434:400-404.
  • Cohen-Kettenis PT, Owen A, Kaijser VG, Bradley SJ, Zucker KJ (2003) Demographic characteristics, social competence, and behavior problems in children with gender identity disorder:a cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 31:41-53.
  • Coolidge FL, Thede LL, Young SE (2002) The heritability of gender ıdentity disorder in a child and adolescent twin sample. Behav Genet, 32:251-257.
  • Daae E, Feragen KB, Waehre A, Nermoen I, Falhammar H(2020) Sexual orientation in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia:a systematic review. Front Behav, 14:38.
  • Davies W, Isles AR, Burgoyne PS, Wilkinson LS (2006) X-linked imprinting: Effects on brain and behaviour. Bioessays, 28:35-44.
  • Diamond LM, and Butterworth M (2008) Questioning gender and sexual identity: Dynamic links over time. Sex Roles, 59:365-376.
  • Egan SK, Perry DG (2001) Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Dev Psychol, 37:451-463.
  • Ellis L, Cole-Harding S (2001) The effects of prenatal stress, and of prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure, on human sexual orientation. Physiol Behav, 74:213-226.
  • Fagot BI (1977) Teachers’ reinforcement of sex-preferred behaviors in Dutch preschools.Psychol Rep, 41:1249-1250.
  • Galambos NL, Almeida DM, Petersen AC (1990) Masculinity, femininity, and sex role attitudes in early adolescence:exploring gender ıntensification. Child Dev, 61:1905-1914.
  • Ganna A, Verweij KJ, Nivard MG, Maier R, Wedow R, Busch AS et al. (2019) Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. Science, 365:112-114.
  • Gómez-Gil E, Esteva I, Almaraz MC, Pasaro E, Segovia S, Guillamon A (2009) Familiality of gender identity disorder in non-twin siblings. Arch Sex Behav, 39:546-552.
  • Gooren L(1990) The endocrinology of transsexualism:a review and commentary. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 15:3-14.
  • Green R (1976) One-hundred ten feminine and masculine boys:behavioral contrasts and demographic similarities. Arch Sex Behav, 5:425-446.
  • Green Rand Keverne EB (2000) The disparate maternal aunt-uncle ratio in male transsexuals:an explanation invoking genomic imprinting. J Theor Biol, 202:55-63.
  • Green R (2000) Family cooccurrence of ‘gender dysphoria’: ten sibling or parent–child pairs. Arch Sex Behav, 29:499-507.
  • Güneş H (2010)Demographic characteristics and behavior problems of childrens with gender identity problems and child rearing practices, marital and sexual adjustment and gender roles of their parents [Postgraduate thesis]. Istanbul, Istanbul University.
  • Hammack-Aviran C, Eilmus A, Diehl C, Gottlieb KG, Gonzales G, Davis LK et al. (2022) LGBTQ+ Perspectives on conducting genomic research on sexual orientation and gender identity. Behav Genet, 52:246-267.
  • Hengstschläger M, Trotsenburg MV, Repa C, Marton E, Huber JC, BernaschekG (2003) Sex chromosome aberrations and transsexualism. Fertil Steril, 79:639-640.
  • Henningsson S, Westberg L, Nilsson S, Lundström B, Ekselius L, Bodlund O et al. (2005) Sex steroid-related genes and male-to-female transsexualism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30:657-664.
  • Hill JP, Lynch ME (1983) The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In Girls at Puberty (Ed JB Gunn, AC Petersen):201-228. Boston, MA, Springer.
  • Hines M (2020) Neuroscience and sex/gender:looking back and forward. J Neurosci, 40:37-43.
  • Hines M, Ahmed SF, Hughes IA (2003) Psychological outcomes and gender-related development in complete androgen ınsensitivity syndrome. Arch Sex Behav, 32:93-101.
  • Holmes L, Watts-Overall TM, Slettevold E, Gruia DC, Raines J, Rieger G (2021) Sexual orientation, sexual arousal, and finger length ratios in women.Arch Sex Behav, 23:14-16.
  • Huser N, Hulswit BB,Koeller DR, Yashar BM (2022) Improving gender-affirming care in genetic counseling:Using educational tools that amplify transgender and/or gender non-binary community voices. J Genet Couns, 31:1102-1112.
  • Imperato-McGinley J, Guerrero L, Gautier T, Peterson RE (1974) Steroid 5alpha-reductase deficiency in man:An ınherited form of male pseudohermaphroditism. Science, 186:1213-1215.
  • Kassis W, Aksoy D, Favre AC, Artz ST(2021) Multidimensional and ıntersectional gender ıdentity and sexual attraction patterns of adolescents for quantitative research. Front Psychol, 12:112-114.
  • Knafo A, Spinath FM (2011) Genetic and environmental influences on girls’ and boys’ gender-typed and gender-neutral values. Dev Psychol, 47:726-731.
  • Kraemer B, Noll T, Delsignore A, Milos G, Schnyder U, Hepp U (2009) Finger length ratio (2D:4D) in adults with gender ıdentity disorder. Arch Sex Behav, 38:359-363.
  • Kruijver FP, Zhou JN, Pool CW, X Hofman MA, Gooren LJ, Swaab DF (2000) Male-to-female transsexuals have female neuron numbers in a limbic nucleus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 85:2034-2041.
  • Kruijver FP, Fernández-Guasti A, Fodor M, Kraan EM, Swaab DF (2001) Sex differences in androgen receptors of the human mamillary bodies are related to endocrine status rather than to sexual orientation or transsexuality. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 86:818-827.
  • Kudwa AE, Michopoulos V, Gatewood JF, Rissman EF (2006) Roles of estrogen receptors alpha and beta in differentiation of mouse sexual behavior. Neuroscience, 138:921-928.
  • Leibowitz S, Chen D, Hidalgo MA (2016) Gender dysphoria and nonconformity. In Dulcan’s Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: (Ed MK Dulcan): 585-602. Washington DC, American Psychiatric Publishing.
  • Leibowitz S, DeVries AL (2016) Gender dysphoria in adolescence. Int Rev Psychiatry, 28:21-35.
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  • Ramírez KD, Fernández R, Delgado-Zayas E, Gómez-Gil E, Esteva I, Guillamon A, et al. (2021) Implications of the estrogen receptor coactivators SRC1 and SRC2 in the biological basis of gender ıncongruence. Sex Med, 9:100368.
  • Reale C, Invernizzi F, Panteghini C, Garavaglia B (2021) Genetics, sex, and gender. J Neurosci Res, 34:112-114.
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  • Romeo RD, McCarthy JM, Wang A, Milner TA, McEwen BS (2005) Sex differences in hippocampal estradiol-induced N-methyl-d-aspartic acid binding and ultrastructural localization of estrogen receptor-alpha. Neuroendocrinology, 81:391-399.
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Toplam 83 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Çocuk ve Ergen Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları, Psikiyatri
Bölüm Derleme
Yazarlar

Mesut Sari 0000-0002-9433-1892

Uğur Savcı 0000-0002-3258-2899

Büşra Balta 0000-0002-5798-5811

Yusuf Öztürk 0000-0002-3412-9879

Ali Evren Tufan 0000-0001-5207-6240

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 15 Kasım 2023
Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Mart 2024
Kabul Tarihi 15 Temmuz 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024

Kaynak Göster

AMA Sari M, Savcı U, Balta B, Öztürk Y, Tufan AE. Neurobiological Components of Sexual Identity Development and Epigenetic Effects of Environmental Stressors. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar. Mart 2024;16(1):175-184. doi:10.18863/pgy.1238867

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Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar Creative Commons Atıf-Gayriticari-Türetilemez 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.