Goals: A Significant Tool for Protection of Mental and Physical Health

Öz

Human beings want to have mental and physical health, attach to life, and also have a happy life. In this process, they need several tools. The goals are the most important tool for a happy and healthy life. Goals help individuals become aware of problems in a timely fashion, which in turn leads to healthy solutions. Goals give direction for life of an individual, and also help avoid chaos. Goals can help motivate individual by clarifying and communicating what the individual is striving to achieve. In addition to these, goals are important determinants for physical and mental health. In this article, the history of goals in psychology, definition of goals, types of goals, transferring of goals for real life, relationships between goals and cultures, implementation programs which are goal oriented, goals in national literature, and also relationships between goals, physical and mental health have been briefly reviewed. As a result, many scientific disciplines could use goals as protective and preventive tools for mental and physical health of individuals.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Goals, physical health, mental health

Amaçlar: Ruh ve Beden Sağlığını Korumanın Önemli Bir Aracı

Öz

İnsanlar; yaşama bağlanıp, fiziksel ve ruhsal açıdan sağlıklı olup, mutlu bir şekilde yaşamı sürdürmeyi istemektedirler. Bu süreçte onların bir takım araçlara ihtiyaçlar vardır. Amaçlar da bu araçlardan biridir. Amaçlar, bireylerin problemlerini zamanında fark etmelerine yardımcı olarak, sağlıklı çözümler üretmelerine yardımcı olur. Amaçlar, insanların yaşamlarına yön vermekle birlikte onların karmaşadan kurtulmalarına da yardım eder. Bir başka deyişle, amaçlar bireylerin mücadele ettikleri konulara motive olmalarına yardımcı olur. Tüm bunların yanında amaçlar, bireylerin fiziksel ve ruhsal sağlıkları için önemli bir etkendir. Bu çalışmada amaçların psikoloji tarihindeki yerine, amaçların tanımlanmasına, amaç çeşitlerine, amaçların yaşama aktarılmasına, amaç ve kültür ilişkisine, amaç temelli müdahale programlarına, ulusal literatürde amaçların ele alınışına ve son olarak ruh sağlığı ile amaçlar arasındaki ilişkilere değinilmiştir. Sonuç olarak pek çok bilimsel disiplin alanı, bireylerin ruhsal ve fiziksel sağlıklarını daha olumluya götürmek adına amaçlardan faydalanabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Amaç, ruh sağlığı, beden Sağlığı

Kaynakça

1. Locke EA, Latham GP. Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: a 35-year odyssey. Am Psychol 2002; 57:705-717.
2. Pintrich PR, Schunk DH. Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall Merrill, 1996.
3. Nair K. Life goals: the concept and its relevance to rehabilitation. J Clin Rehabil 2003; 17:192-202.
4. Ryan TA. Intentional Behavior. New York, Ronald Press, 1970.
5. Bandura A. Self-regulation of motivation and action through internal standards and goal systems. In Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology (Ed LA Pervin):19-85. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum, 1989.
6. Locke EA, Latham GP. A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1990.
7. Bandura A, Cervone D. Differential engagement of self reactive influences in cognitive motivation. Organ Behav Hum Decis Processes 1986; 38:92-113.
8. Rothkopf E, Billington M. Goal-guided learning from text: inferring a descriptive processing model from inspection times and eye movements. J Edu Psychol 1979; 71:310-327.

9. Austin JT, Vancouver JB. Goal constructs in psychology: structure, process, and content. Psychol Bull 1996; 120:338-375.
10. Elliot AJ, McGregor H. A 2 X 2 achievement goal framework. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001; 80:501-519.
11. Shah J, Kruglansky A. When opportunity knocks: bottom-up priming of goals by means and its effects on self-regulation. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003; 84:1109-1122.
12. Negru O. Personal goals: structures and processes in adult development. Cogniţie Creier Comportament 2008; 12:265-283.
13. Deci EL, Ryan RM. The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol Inq 2000; 11:227-268.
14. Freitas AL, Higgins ET. Enjoying goal-directed action: the role of regulatory fit. Psychol Sci 2002; 13: 1-6.
15. Gollwitzer PM. Why we thought the action mindsets affect illusions of control. Psychol Inq 2003; 14:261-269.
16. Klinger E. The search of meaning in evolutionary perspective and its clinical implications. In Handbook of Personal Meaning: Theory, Research and Application, (Eds PTT Wong, PS Fry):27-50. Mahwah, NJ, Erlbaum, 1998.
17. Carver C, Scheier M. Attention and Self-Regulation: A Control Theory Approach to Human Behavior. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1981.
18. King LA, Richards JH, Stemmerich E. Daily goals, life goals, and worst fears: means, ends, and subjective well-being. J Pers 1998; 65:713-744.
19. Emmons RA. Abstract versus concrete goals: personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol 1992; 62:292-300.
20. Kasser T, Ryan RM. Further examining the American dream: differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1996; 22:280-287.
21. Sheldon KM, Kasser T. Coherence and congruence: two aspects of personality integration. J Pers Soc Psychol 1995; 68:531-543.
22. Sheldon KM, Kasser T. Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving. Motiv Emot 2008; 32:37-45.
23. Sheldon KM, Ryan RM, Deci EL, Kasser T. The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: it's both what you pursue and why you pursue it. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2004; 30:475-486.
24. Emmons RA. Personal goals, life meaning, and virtue: wellsprings of a positive life. In Flourishing: The positive person and the good life. (Eds CLM Keyes):105-128. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 2003.
25. Peseschkian N, Walker RR. Positive Psychotherapy Theory and Practice of a New Method. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1987.
26. Baltes PB. Theoritical propositons of life-span developmental psychology on the dynamics between growth and decline. Dev Psychol 1987; 23:611-626.
27. Papalia DE, Olds SW, Feldman RD. Human Development, 9th ed. New York, McGraw Hill, 2004.
28. Erikson EH. Childhood and Society. New York, Norton, 1964.
29. Tedeschi RG, Calhoun LG. Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychol Inq 2004; 15:1-18.
30. Riediger M, Freund AM, Baltes PB. Managing life through personal goals: intergoal facilitation and intensity of goal pursuit in younger and older adulthood. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2005; 60:84-91.
31. Markus H, Nurius P. Possible selves. Am Psychol 1986; 41:954-969.
32. Pervin LA. Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum,1989.
33. Eryılmaz A. Yaşam boyu gelişim yaklaşımı. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar 2011; 3:49-66.
34. Freund AM, Baltes PB. Life-management strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation: measurement by self-report and construct validity. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002; 82:642-662.
35. Freund AM, Baltes PB. Selection, optimization, and compensation as strategies of life-management: correlations with subjective indicators of successful aging. Psychol Aging 1998;13:531-543.
36. Pintrich PR, Schunk DH. Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall Merrill, 1996.
37. Wentzel, KR. What is it that I’m trying to achieve? classroom goals from a content perspective. Contemp Educ Psychol 2000; 25:105-115.
38. Elliot A, Church M. A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. J Pers Soc Psychol 1997; 72:218-232.
39. Rawsthorne LJ, Elliot AJ. Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: a meta- analytic review. J Pers Soc Psychol Rev 1999; 3:326-344.
40. Ames C, Archer J. Achievement goals in the classroom: students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. J Educ Psychol 1988; 80:260-267.
41. Klein HJ, Wesson MJ, Hollenbeck JR, Alge BJ. Goal commitment and the goal setting process: conceptual clarification and empirical synthesis. J Appl Psychol 1999; 64:885-896.
42. Bandura A. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY, Freeman, 1997.
43. Sheldon KM, Elliot AJ. Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: the self-concordance model. J Pers Soc Psychol 1999; 76:546-557.
44. Carver CS, Scheier MF. On the Self-Regulation of Behavior. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
45. Vroom V. The Motivation to Work. New York, Wiley, 1964.
46. Diener E, Suh EM, Smith H, Shao L. National differences in reported well-being: Why do they occur? Soc Indic Res 1995; 34:7-32.
47. Diener E, Suh EM, Lucas RE, Smith HL. Subjective well-being: three decades of progress. Psychol Bull 1999; 125:276-302.
48. Diener E, Oishi S, Lucas RE. Personality, culture, and subjective wellbeing: emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annu Rev Psychol 2003; 54:403-425.
49. Sheldon KM, Lyubomirsky S. How to increase and sustain positive emotion: the effects of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves. J Posit Psychol 2006; 1:73-82.
50. O’Hearn TC, Gatz M. Going for the goal: improving youths’ problem-solving skills through a school-based Intervention. J Community Psychol 2002; 30:281-303.
51. MacLeod AK, Coates E, Hetherton J. Increasing well-being through teaching goal setting and planning skills: result of a brief intervention. J Happiness Stud 2008; 9:185-196.
52. Danish SJ. Going for the goal: a life skills program for adolescents. In Primary Prevention Works (Ed GW Albee):291-312. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage,1997.
53. Eryılmaz A. Yeniden gözden geçirme: Pozitif psikoterapi ve gelişimsel rehberlik bağlamında ergenler için amaçları genişletme program. Aile ve Toplum 2010; 20:53- 66.
54. Cullen KW, Baranowski T, Smith SP. Using goal setting as a strategy for dietary behavior change. J Am Diet Assoc 2001; 101:562-566.
55. Bandura A, Simon KM. The role of proximal intentions in self-regulation of refractory behavior. Cognit Ther Res. 1977; 1:177-193.
56. Stenstrom CH. Home exercise in rheumatoid arthritis functional class II: goal setting versus pain attention. J Rheumatol 1994; 21:627-634
57. Miller WR, Toscova RT, Miller JH, Sanchez V. A theory-based motivational approach for reducing alcohol/drug use in college. Health Education and Behavior 2000; 27: 744-759.
58. İlhan T. Üniversite öğrencilerinin benlik uyumu modeli: yaşam amaçları, temel psikolojik ihtiyaçlar ve öznel iyi oluş (Doktora tezi). Ankara, Gazi Üniversitesi, 2009.
59. Aydıner BB. Üniversite öğrencilerinin yaşam amaçlarının alt boyutlarının genel öz yeterlik yaşam doyumu ve çeşitli değişkenlere göre incelenmesi. (Yüksek lisans tezi). Sakarya, Sakarya Üniversitesi, 2011.
60. Koivumaa-Honkanen H, Kaprio J, Honkanen. The stability of life satisfaction in a 15-year follow-up adult Finns healthy at baseline. BMC Psychiatry 2005; 59:794- 798.
61. Rasmussen HN, Wrosch C, Scheier MF, Carver CS. Self-regulation processes and health: the importance of optimism and goal adjustment. J Pers 2006; 74:1721-1748.
62. Usborne E, Lydon JE, Taylor DM. Goals and social relationships: windows into the motivation and well being of street kids. J Appl Soc Psychol 2009; 39:1057-1087.
63. Judge TA, Bono JE, Erez A, Locke EA. Core self-evaluations and job and life satisfaction: The role of self-concordance and goal attainment. J Appl Psychol 2005; 90:257-268.
64. Salmela-Aro K, Nurmi JE. Goal contents, well-being and life context during the transition to university: a longitudinal study. Int J Behav Dev 1997; 20:471-491.
65. Seligman ME, Steen TA, Park N, Peterson C. Positive psychology progress: empirical validation of interventions. Am Psychol 2005; 60:410-421.
66. Park N, Peterson C, Seligman MEP. Strengths of character and well-being. J Soc Clin Psychol 2004; 23:603-619.
67. Shih FJ, Meleis AI, Yu PJ, Hu WY, Lou MF, Huang GS. Taiwanese patients’ concerns and coping strategies: transition to cardiac surgery. Heart Lung 1998; 27:82-98.
68. Roberts CS, Severinsen C, Carraway C, Clark D, Freeman M, Daniel P. Life changes and problems experienced by young adults with cancer. J Psychosoc Oncol 1997; 15:15-25.
69. Cook DW. Dimensions and correlates of post service adjustment to spinal cord injury: a longitudinal study. Int J Rehabil Res 1982; 5:373-375.
70. Vallet G, Ahmaidi S, Serres I, Fabre C, Bourgouin D, Desplan J et al. Comparison of two training programmes in chronic airway limitation patients: standardised versus individualised protocols. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:114-122.
71. Thornton TA, Hakim RM. Meaningful rehabilitation of the end stage renal disease patient. Semin Nephrol 1997; 17: 246-252.
72. Lauriola M, Levin IP. Personality traits and risky decision-making in a controlled experimental task: an exploratory study. Pers Individ Dif 2001; 31:215-226.
73. Elliot AJ, Church MA. Client-articulated avoidance goals in the therapy context. J Couns Psychol 2002; 49:243-254.
74. Schwartz L, Drotar D. Defining the nature and impact of goals in children and adolescents with a cronic health condition: a review of research and a theoretical framework. J Clin Psychol Med Settings 2006; 13:393-405.
75. Ali Eryılmaz, Yrd. Doç. Dr., Osmangazi Üniversitesi, Eskişehir .