Derleme
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Discrimination and Violence against Transgender People

Yıl 2024, , 731 - 739, 25.12.2024
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1417609

Öz

Violence against transgender individuals is pervasive across many sectors, yet discourse on the issue remains limited to a few platforms, with minimal action taken to address it. This inaction contributes significantly to public health problems. Transgender individuals often face myriad forms of violence, including familial ostracization, physical abuse, emotional neglect, school bullying, unemployment, and discrimination in public arenas. Such experiences hinder their social integration and infringe on their personal rights. Research indicates that violence against transgender people has detrimental effects on their mental health, and the rates of reporting such incidents are distressingly low. Factors like stigma, misunderstandings by authorities, fear of transphobic reactions, unequal legal protections, and the risk of unjust arrest discourage seeking help. These challenges increase the vulnerability of transgender people to violence. This review will analyze the existing literature on violence against transgender individuals and explore the societal underpinnings of such violent behaviors.

Kaynakça

  • Akande M, Farno AD, Adrian H, Fogwell NT, Johnson DM, Zlotnick C et al. (2023) ‘Sometimes, we don’t know if we’re getting abused’: Discussions of intimate partner violence and HIV risk among transgender women. Cult Health Sex, 25:1101-1115.
  • Akgül GY, Ayaz AB (2021) Çocuk ve ergenlerde cinsiyet hoşnutsuzluğu. İstanbul Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, 84(Suppl 1 ):S4-S10.
  • Almeida GS (2010) Reflexões iniciais sobre o processo transexualizador no SUS a partir de uma experiência de atendimento. In: Arila M, Lapa TS, Pisaneschi TC, organizadores. Transexualidade, travestilidade e direito à saúde. São Paulo: Oficina Editorial, 117-148.
  • Austin A, Craig SL, D’Souza S, MClnroy LB (2022) Suicidality among transgender youth: Elucidating the role of interpersonal risk factors. J Interpers Violence, 37:NP2696–NP2718.
  • Aypar G, Tanyaş B (2017) İstanbul’da yaşayan transların dışlanma ve ayrımcılık deneyimleri üzerine nitel bir çalışma. Aurum Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2:71-99.
  • Baral S, Poteat T, Strömdahl S, Wirtz AL, Guadamuz TE, Beyrer C (2013) Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis, 13:214–222.
  • Barnes R (2008) ‘I still sort of flounder around in a sea of non-language’: The constraints of language and labels in women’s accounts of woman-to-woman partner abuse. In Gender and Interpersonal Violence (Eds ):. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
  • Barragan-Medero F, Perez-Jorge D (2020) Erratum: 'Erratum to "Combating homophobia, lesbophobia, biphobia and transphobia: A liberating and subversive educational alternative for desires". Heliyon, 6:e05473.
  • Becasen JS, Denard CL, Mullins MM, Higa DH, Sipe TA (2019) Estimating the prevalence of HIV and sexual behaviors among the US transgender population: A systematic review and meta-analysis, 2006-2017.” Am J Public Health, 109:e1-e8.
  • Bem SL (1981) Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychol Rev, 88:354-364.
  • Bettcher TM (2007) Evil deceivers and make‐believers: On transphobic violence and the politics of illusion. Hypatia, 22:43-65.
  • Bourne A, Amos N, Donovan C, Carman M, Parsons M, Lusby S et al. (2023) Naming and recognition of intimate partner violence and family of origin violence among LGBTQ communities in Australia. J Interpers Violence, 38:4589-4615.
  • Brandon J, Hafez S, Cohesion CFS (2008) Crimes of the Community: Honour-based Violence in the UK, 2nd ed. London, UK, Centre for Social Cohesion.
  • Breiding M, Basile KC, Smith SG, Black MC, Mahendra RR (2015) Intimate Partner Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements. Version 2.0. Atlanta, GA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
  • Brennan J, Kuhns LM, Johnson AK, Belzer M, Wilson EC, Garofalo R et al. (2012) Syndemic theory and HIV-related risk among young transgender women: the role of multiple, co-occurring health problems and social marginalization. Am J Public Health, 102:1751–1757.
  • Brown N (2011) Holding Tensions Of Victimization And Perpetration: Partner Abuse In Trans Communities. In Intimate Partner Violence in LGBTQ Lives (Ed JL Ristock):153-168. London, UK, Routledge.
  • Budge SL, Adelson JL, Howard KA (2013) Anxiety and depression in transgender individuals: The roles of transition status, loss, social support, and coping. J Consult Clin Psychol, 81:545-557.
  • Butler J (2004) Undoing Gender. New York, Psychology Press.
  • Casey LS, Reisner SL, Findling MG, Blendon RJ, Benson JM, Sayde JM et al. (2019) Discrimination in the United States: Experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer Americans. Health Serv Res, 54:454-466.
  • Chan A, Pullen Sansfaçon A, Saewyc E (2023) Experiences of discrimination or violence and health outcomes among Black, Indigenous and People of Colour trans and/or nonbinary youth. J Adv Nurs, 79:2004–2013.
  • Cingöz Ulu B, Sayılan G (2016) Kadın şiddet mağdurlarına yönelik tutumlarda mağdurun trans kimliğinin etkisi. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 19:94-104.
  • Dinno A (2017) Homicide rates of transgender ındividuals in the United States: 2010-2014. Am J Public Health, 107:1441–1447.
  • Dolan C (2015) Letting go of the gender binary: Charting new pathways for humanitarian interventions on gender-based violence. Int Rev Red Cross, 96:485-501.
  • Earnshaw VA, Menino DD, Sava LM, Perrotti J, Barnes TN, Humphrey DL et al. (2020) LGBTQ bullying: A qualitative investigation of student and school health professional perspectives. J LGBT Youth, 17:280-297.
  • Eisenberg ME, Gower AL, Nic Rider G, McMorris BJ, Coleman E (2019) At the intersection of sexual orientation and gender identity: Variations in emotional distress and bullying experience in a large population-based sample of U.S. adolescents. J LGBT Youth, 16:235-254.
  • Fried ST, Teixeria A (2014) International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission input memo to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against women. New York, NY, International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission.
  • Garnett BR, Masyn KE, Austin SB, Miller M, Williams DR, Viswanath K ( (2014) The intersectionality of discrimination attributes and bullying among youth: an applied latent class analysis. J Youth Adolesc, 43:1225-1239.
  • Goffman E (2009) Stigma: Notes on The Management of Spoiled Identity. New York, Simon and Schuster.
  • Goldenberg T, Jadwin-Cakmak L, Harper GW (2018) Intimate partner violence among transgender youth: Associations with intrapersonal and structural factors. Violence Gender, 5:19-25.
  • Goldenberg T, Kahle EM, Stephenson R (2020) Stigma, resilience, and health care use among transgender and other gender diverse youth in the United States. Transgend Health, 5:173-181.
  • Goodrich KM (2012) Lived experiences of college‐age transsexual individuals. J Coll Couns, 15:215-232.
  • Gower AL, Rider GN, Del Río-González AM, Erickson PJ, Thomas D, Russell ST et al. (2023). Application of an intersectional lens to bias-based bullying among LGBTQ+ youth of color in the United States. Stigma Health, 8:363-371.
  • Göçmen İ, Yılmaz V (2017) Exploring perceived discrimination among LGBT individuals in Turkey in education, employment, and health care: Results of an online survey. J Homosex, 64:1052-1068.
  • Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman JL, Keisling M (2011) Injustice at Every Turn. A Report of The National. 2nd ed. Washington, DC, National Center for Transgender Equality,
  • Greenberg K (2012) Still hidden in the closet: Trans women and domestic violence. Berkeley J Gend Law Justice, 27:2.
  • Hall W (2017) The effectiveness of policy interventions for school bullying: A Systematic Review. J Soc Soc Work Res, 8:45-69.
  • Henderson ER, Sang JM, Louth-Marquez W, Egan JE, Espelage D, Friedman M et al. (2022) "Words aren't supposed to hurt, but they do": Sexual and gender minority youth's bullying experiences. J Interpers Violence, 37:NP8747–NP8766.
  • Hendricks ML, Testa RJ (2012) A conceptual framework for clinical work with transgender and gender nonconforming clients: An adaptation of the minority stress model. Prof Psychol Res Pract, 43:460-467.
  • Hill DB, Willoughby BLB (2005) the development and validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. Sex Roles, 53:531-544.
  • Home Office (2012) Cross-Government Definition of Domestic Violence – A Consultation Summary of Responses.London, Uk, Home Office.
  • James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi MA (2016). The report of the 2015 US transgender survey. Washington, DC, National Center for Transgender Equality,
  • Kattari SK, Bakko M, Hecht HK, Kattari L (2020) Correlations between healthcare provider interactions and mental health among transgender and nonbinary adults. SSM Popul Health, 10:100525.
  • Kattari SK, Bakko M, Langenderfer-Magruder L, Holloway BT (2021). Transgender and nonbinary experiences of victimization in health care. J Interpers Violence, 36:NP13054-NP13076.
  • Kenagy GP (2005) Transgender health: Findings from two needs assessment studies in Philadelphia. Health Soc Work, 30:19-26.
  • Kenagy GP, Bostwick WB (2005) Health and social service needs of transgender people in Chicago. Int J Transgend, 8:57-66.
  • Kouyoumdjian FG, Findlay N, Schwandt M, Calzavara LM (2013) A systematic review of the relationships between ıntimate partner violence and HIV/AIDS. PloS One, 8:e81044
  • Krug EG, Mercy JA, Dahlberg LL, Zwi AB (2002) The world report on violence and health. Lancet, 360:1083-1088.
  • Lacerda M, Pereira C, Camino L (2002) Um estudo sobre as formas de preconceito contra homossexuais na perspectiva das representações sociais. Psico Reflex Crit, 15:165-178.
  • Leppel K (2016) The labor force status of transgender men and women. Int J Transgend, 17:155-164.
  • Link BG, Phelan JC (2001) Conceptualizing Stigma. Annu Rev Sociol, 27:363-385.
  • Logie CH, Wang Y, Lacombe-Duncan A, Jones N, Ahmed U, Levermore K el al. (2017) Factors associated with sex work involvement among transgender women in Jamaica: A cross-sectional study. J Int AIDS Soc, 20:21422.
  • Meyer IH (2003) Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull, 129:674-697.
  • Miller LR, Grollman EA (2015) The social costs of gender nonconformity for transgender adults: Implications for discrimination and health. Sociol Forum, 30:809-831.
  • Mittal M, Thevenet-Morrison K, Landau J, Cai X, Gibson L, Schroeder A et al. (2017) An integrated HIV risk reduction intervention for women with a history of intimate partner violence: Pilot test results. AIDS Behav, 21:2219–2232.
  • Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, Hwahng S, Mason M, Macri M et al. (2013) Gender abuse, depressive symptoms, and HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among male-to-female transgender persons: a three-year prospective study. Am J Public Health, 103:300–307.
  • Onur Şimşek K, Özgülnar N (2024) Evaluation of health status of transgender sex workers in Turkey: A qualitative study. Aten Primaria, 56:102875.
  • Peitzmeier SM, Malik M, Kattari SK, Marrow E, Stephenson R, Agénor M et al. (2020) Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. Am J Pub Health, 110:e1-e14.
  • Peng K, Zhu X, Gillespie A, Wang Y, Gao Y, Xin Y et al. (2019) Self-reported rates of abuse, neglect, and bullying experienced by transgender and gender-nonbinary adolescents in China. JAMA Network Open, 2:e1911058.
  • Perry B, Dyck DR (2013) “I don’t know where it is safe”: Trans women’s experiences of violence. Crit Crim, 22:49-63.
  • Polat A, Şirin S (2020) Cinsiyet Disforisi Multidisipliner Yaklaşım İlkeleri. Ankara, Nobel Tıp Kitapevleri.
  • Poteat VP, Mereish EH, DiGiovanni CD, Koenig BW (2011) The effects of general and homophobic victimization on adolescents' psychosocial and educational concerns: the importance of intersecting identities and parent support. J Couns Psychol, 58:597-609.
  • Radkowsky M, Siegel LJ (1997) The gay adolescent: stressors, adaptations, and psychosocial interventions. Clin Psychol Rev, 17:191-216.
  • Reisner SL, White JM, Bradford JB, Mimiaga MJ (2014) Transgender health disparities: comparing full cohort and nested matched-pair study designs in a community health center. LGBT Health, 1:177-184.
  • Ristock JL (2011) Introduction: Intimate partner violence in LGBTQ lives. In Intimate Partner Violence in LGBTQ Lives. (Ed JL Ristock):9-18. New York, Routledge.
  • Robinson A (2016) Heteronormativity and homonormativity. In The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies (Ed N Naples): doi: 10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss013. Hoboken, NJ, Wiley-.
  • Rogers M (2017) Transphobic 'honour'-based abuse: A conceptual tool. Sociology, 51:225-240.
  • Sánchez-Fuentes MDM, Araújo LF, Parra-Barrera SM, Fontes ÉRS., Santos JVO, Moyano N (2021) Transphobia and gender identity: social representations of trans women from Brazil and Colombia. Cien Saude Colet, 26:5793-5804.
  • Shaw E, Butler C, Langdridge D, Gibson S, Barker M, Lenihan P et al. (2012) Guidelines and Literature Review for Psychologists Working Therapeutically With Sexual And Gender Minority Clients. London, British Psychological Society.
  • Silva ICBD, Araújo EC, Santana ADDS, Moura JWDS, Ramalho MNA, Abreu PD (2022) Gender violence perpetrated against trans women. Rev Bras Enferm, 75:e20210173.
  • Soner G, Aydin Avci İ (2023) LGBTI + persons' experiences, expectations, and suggestions for improving LGBTI + healthcare services in Turkey: a qualitative study. Issues Ment Health Nurs, 44:834–843.
  • Stoller RJ (1964) The hermaphroditic identity of hermaphrodites. J Nerv Ment Disease, 139:453-457.
  • Stotzer RL (2009) Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data. Aggress Violent Behav, 14:170-179.
  • Stotzer RL (2017) Data sources hinder our understanding of transgender murders. Am J Public Health, 107:1362-1363.
  • Strauss P, Cook A, Winter S, Watson V, Wright Toussaint D, Lin A (2020 Associations between negative life experiences and the mental health of trans and gender diverse young people in Australia: findings from Trans Pathways. Psychol Med, 50:808-817.
  • Şahin FY, Gençer DB (2023) A study on the life satisfaction, resilience, depression, anxiety, and stress levels of LGBT+ individuals according to parental acceptance and life skills. J Hum Sci, 20:311-330.
  • Tsapalas D, Parker M, Ferrer L, Bernales M (2021) Gender-based violence, perspectives in Latin America and the Caribbean. Hisp Health Care Int, 19:23-37.
  • Tüzün Z, Başar K, Akgül S (2022) Social connectedness matters: Depression and anxiety in transgender youth during the Covid-19 pandemic. J Sex Med, 19:650-660.
  • Uluyol FM (2016) Cinsiyet kimliği ve cinsel yönelime bağlı zorbalığa maruz kalma, sosyal destek ve psikolojik iyilik hali arasındaki ilişki. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 19:87-96.
  • United Nations (2022) Homophobic and Transphobic Violence Fact Sheet. New York, USA, United Nations for LGBT Equality.
  • Verschoor AM, Poortinga J (1988) Psychosocial differences between Dutch male and female transsexuals. Arch Sex Behav, 17:173-178.
  • Warner M (1991) Introduction: Fear of a queer planet. Social Text, 29:3-17.
  • White C, Goldberg J (2006) Expanding our understanding of gendered violence: Violence against trans peopleand their loved ones. Can Woman Stud, 25:124-127.
  • Whittle S, Turner L (2009) Hate Crime in the EU. London, Press For Change.
  • Wirtz AL, Poteat TC, Malik M, Glass N (2020) Gender-Based Violence Against Transgender People in the United States: A Call for Research and Programming. Trauma Violence Abuse, 21:227-241.
  • Witcomb GL, Claes L, Bouman WP, Nixon E, Motmans J, Arcelus J (2019) Experiences and psychological wellbeing outcomes associated with bullying in treatment-seeking transgender and gender-diverse youth. LGBT Health, 6:216-226.
  • Xu L, Chang R, Chen Y, Xia D, Xu C, Yu X et al. (2023) The prevalence of childhood sexual experiences and intimate partner violence among transgender women in China: Risk factors for lifetime suicidal ideation. Front Public Health, 10:1037622.
  • Yen NTH, Xuan BT, Xuan BT, Thi Mai Ha N, Diep BN, Van Chien N et al. (2016) Reaching Out: Preventing and Addressing SOGIE-Related School Violence in Vietnam. Bangkok, UNESCO.
  • Yerke AF, DeFeo J (2016) Redefining intimate partner violence beyond the binary to ınclude transgender people. J Fam Violence, 31:975-979.
  • Yüksel Ş, Ertekin BA, Öztürk M, Bıkmaz PS, Oglagu Z (2017) A clinically neglected topic: Risk of suicide in transgender individuals. Noro Psikiyatr Ars, 54:28-32.

Trans Cinsiyetlilere Yönelik Ayrımcılık ve Şiddet

Yıl 2024, , 731 - 739, 25.12.2024
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1417609

Öz

Trans cinsiyetlilere yönelik şiddet ile pek çok alanda karşılaşılmakta ancak sınırlı platformlarda konuşulmakta ve önlemek amacıyla neredeyse hiçbir şey yapılmamaktadır. Bu tepkisizlik halk sağlığı açısından önemli sorunlara yol açmaktadır. Aileden uzaklaşmaya zorlanmak, fiziksel şiddet, duygusal ihmal, okulda zorbalık maruziyeti, işsiz bırakılmak, kamusal alanda uygulanan ayrımcılık bu şiddet olaylarının birkaçıdır ve bu durum trans cinsiyetlilerin toplumsal hayata entegre olmalarını ve kişisel haklarından yararlanmalarını engellemektedir. Yapılan çalışmalar transların deneyimledikleri şiddet olaylarının olumsuz ruh sağlığı sonuçlarına yol açtığını, bu vakaların bildirilme oranlarının çok düşük olduğunu, yardım arama davranışlarının damgalanma, yetkililerce anlaşılmama, transfobik tutumlarla karşılaşma korkusu, eşit olmayan yasal düzenlemeler, nedensizce tutuklanma korkusu gibi nedenlerle engellendiğini, tüm bu engellerin transları şiddete daha savunmasız hale getirdiğini göstermektedir. Bu gözden geçirmede trans cinsiyetlilere yönelik şiddet olaylarıyla ilgili literatür incelenecek, şiddet davranışlarının toplumsal temelleri tartışılacaktır.

Teşekkür

Konuyla ilgili merakımı artıran, çalışmalarımda destek olan Prof. Dr. Ömer Böke'ye teşekkürlerimi sunarım.

Kaynakça

  • Akande M, Farno AD, Adrian H, Fogwell NT, Johnson DM, Zlotnick C et al. (2023) ‘Sometimes, we don’t know if we’re getting abused’: Discussions of intimate partner violence and HIV risk among transgender women. Cult Health Sex, 25:1101-1115.
  • Akgül GY, Ayaz AB (2021) Çocuk ve ergenlerde cinsiyet hoşnutsuzluğu. İstanbul Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, 84(Suppl 1 ):S4-S10.
  • Almeida GS (2010) Reflexões iniciais sobre o processo transexualizador no SUS a partir de uma experiência de atendimento. In: Arila M, Lapa TS, Pisaneschi TC, organizadores. Transexualidade, travestilidade e direito à saúde. São Paulo: Oficina Editorial, 117-148.
  • Austin A, Craig SL, D’Souza S, MClnroy LB (2022) Suicidality among transgender youth: Elucidating the role of interpersonal risk factors. J Interpers Violence, 37:NP2696–NP2718.
  • Aypar G, Tanyaş B (2017) İstanbul’da yaşayan transların dışlanma ve ayrımcılık deneyimleri üzerine nitel bir çalışma. Aurum Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2:71-99.
  • Baral S, Poteat T, Strömdahl S, Wirtz AL, Guadamuz TE, Beyrer C (2013) Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis, 13:214–222.
  • Barnes R (2008) ‘I still sort of flounder around in a sea of non-language’: The constraints of language and labels in women’s accounts of woman-to-woman partner abuse. In Gender and Interpersonal Violence (Eds ):. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
  • Barragan-Medero F, Perez-Jorge D (2020) Erratum: 'Erratum to "Combating homophobia, lesbophobia, biphobia and transphobia: A liberating and subversive educational alternative for desires". Heliyon, 6:e05473.
  • Becasen JS, Denard CL, Mullins MM, Higa DH, Sipe TA (2019) Estimating the prevalence of HIV and sexual behaviors among the US transgender population: A systematic review and meta-analysis, 2006-2017.” Am J Public Health, 109:e1-e8.
  • Bem SL (1981) Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychol Rev, 88:354-364.
  • Bettcher TM (2007) Evil deceivers and make‐believers: On transphobic violence and the politics of illusion. Hypatia, 22:43-65.
  • Bourne A, Amos N, Donovan C, Carman M, Parsons M, Lusby S et al. (2023) Naming and recognition of intimate partner violence and family of origin violence among LGBTQ communities in Australia. J Interpers Violence, 38:4589-4615.
  • Brandon J, Hafez S, Cohesion CFS (2008) Crimes of the Community: Honour-based Violence in the UK, 2nd ed. London, UK, Centre for Social Cohesion.
  • Breiding M, Basile KC, Smith SG, Black MC, Mahendra RR (2015) Intimate Partner Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements. Version 2.0. Atlanta, GA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
  • Brennan J, Kuhns LM, Johnson AK, Belzer M, Wilson EC, Garofalo R et al. (2012) Syndemic theory and HIV-related risk among young transgender women: the role of multiple, co-occurring health problems and social marginalization. Am J Public Health, 102:1751–1757.
  • Brown N (2011) Holding Tensions Of Victimization And Perpetration: Partner Abuse In Trans Communities. In Intimate Partner Violence in LGBTQ Lives (Ed JL Ristock):153-168. London, UK, Routledge.
  • Budge SL, Adelson JL, Howard KA (2013) Anxiety and depression in transgender individuals: The roles of transition status, loss, social support, and coping. J Consult Clin Psychol, 81:545-557.
  • Butler J (2004) Undoing Gender. New York, Psychology Press.
  • Casey LS, Reisner SL, Findling MG, Blendon RJ, Benson JM, Sayde JM et al. (2019) Discrimination in the United States: Experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer Americans. Health Serv Res, 54:454-466.
  • Chan A, Pullen Sansfaçon A, Saewyc E (2023) Experiences of discrimination or violence and health outcomes among Black, Indigenous and People of Colour trans and/or nonbinary youth. J Adv Nurs, 79:2004–2013.
  • Cingöz Ulu B, Sayılan G (2016) Kadın şiddet mağdurlarına yönelik tutumlarda mağdurun trans kimliğinin etkisi. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 19:94-104.
  • Dinno A (2017) Homicide rates of transgender ındividuals in the United States: 2010-2014. Am J Public Health, 107:1441–1447.
  • Dolan C (2015) Letting go of the gender binary: Charting new pathways for humanitarian interventions on gender-based violence. Int Rev Red Cross, 96:485-501.
  • Earnshaw VA, Menino DD, Sava LM, Perrotti J, Barnes TN, Humphrey DL et al. (2020) LGBTQ bullying: A qualitative investigation of student and school health professional perspectives. J LGBT Youth, 17:280-297.
  • Eisenberg ME, Gower AL, Nic Rider G, McMorris BJ, Coleman E (2019) At the intersection of sexual orientation and gender identity: Variations in emotional distress and bullying experience in a large population-based sample of U.S. adolescents. J LGBT Youth, 16:235-254.
  • Fried ST, Teixeria A (2014) International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission input memo to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against women. New York, NY, International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission.
  • Garnett BR, Masyn KE, Austin SB, Miller M, Williams DR, Viswanath K ( (2014) The intersectionality of discrimination attributes and bullying among youth: an applied latent class analysis. J Youth Adolesc, 43:1225-1239.
  • Goffman E (2009) Stigma: Notes on The Management of Spoiled Identity. New York, Simon and Schuster.
  • Goldenberg T, Jadwin-Cakmak L, Harper GW (2018) Intimate partner violence among transgender youth: Associations with intrapersonal and structural factors. Violence Gender, 5:19-25.
  • Goldenberg T, Kahle EM, Stephenson R (2020) Stigma, resilience, and health care use among transgender and other gender diverse youth in the United States. Transgend Health, 5:173-181.
  • Goodrich KM (2012) Lived experiences of college‐age transsexual individuals. J Coll Couns, 15:215-232.
  • Gower AL, Rider GN, Del Río-González AM, Erickson PJ, Thomas D, Russell ST et al. (2023). Application of an intersectional lens to bias-based bullying among LGBTQ+ youth of color in the United States. Stigma Health, 8:363-371.
  • Göçmen İ, Yılmaz V (2017) Exploring perceived discrimination among LGBT individuals in Turkey in education, employment, and health care: Results of an online survey. J Homosex, 64:1052-1068.
  • Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman JL, Keisling M (2011) Injustice at Every Turn. A Report of The National. 2nd ed. Washington, DC, National Center for Transgender Equality,
  • Greenberg K (2012) Still hidden in the closet: Trans women and domestic violence. Berkeley J Gend Law Justice, 27:2.
  • Hall W (2017) The effectiveness of policy interventions for school bullying: A Systematic Review. J Soc Soc Work Res, 8:45-69.
  • Henderson ER, Sang JM, Louth-Marquez W, Egan JE, Espelage D, Friedman M et al. (2022) "Words aren't supposed to hurt, but they do": Sexual and gender minority youth's bullying experiences. J Interpers Violence, 37:NP8747–NP8766.
  • Hendricks ML, Testa RJ (2012) A conceptual framework for clinical work with transgender and gender nonconforming clients: An adaptation of the minority stress model. Prof Psychol Res Pract, 43:460-467.
  • Hill DB, Willoughby BLB (2005) the development and validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. Sex Roles, 53:531-544.
  • Home Office (2012) Cross-Government Definition of Domestic Violence – A Consultation Summary of Responses.London, Uk, Home Office.
  • James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi MA (2016). The report of the 2015 US transgender survey. Washington, DC, National Center for Transgender Equality,
  • Kattari SK, Bakko M, Hecht HK, Kattari L (2020) Correlations between healthcare provider interactions and mental health among transgender and nonbinary adults. SSM Popul Health, 10:100525.
  • Kattari SK, Bakko M, Langenderfer-Magruder L, Holloway BT (2021). Transgender and nonbinary experiences of victimization in health care. J Interpers Violence, 36:NP13054-NP13076.
  • Kenagy GP (2005) Transgender health: Findings from two needs assessment studies in Philadelphia. Health Soc Work, 30:19-26.
  • Kenagy GP, Bostwick WB (2005) Health and social service needs of transgender people in Chicago. Int J Transgend, 8:57-66.
  • Kouyoumdjian FG, Findlay N, Schwandt M, Calzavara LM (2013) A systematic review of the relationships between ıntimate partner violence and HIV/AIDS. PloS One, 8:e81044
  • Krug EG, Mercy JA, Dahlberg LL, Zwi AB (2002) The world report on violence and health. Lancet, 360:1083-1088.
  • Lacerda M, Pereira C, Camino L (2002) Um estudo sobre as formas de preconceito contra homossexuais na perspectiva das representações sociais. Psico Reflex Crit, 15:165-178.
  • Leppel K (2016) The labor force status of transgender men and women. Int J Transgend, 17:155-164.
  • Link BG, Phelan JC (2001) Conceptualizing Stigma. Annu Rev Sociol, 27:363-385.
  • Logie CH, Wang Y, Lacombe-Duncan A, Jones N, Ahmed U, Levermore K el al. (2017) Factors associated with sex work involvement among transgender women in Jamaica: A cross-sectional study. J Int AIDS Soc, 20:21422.
  • Meyer IH (2003) Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull, 129:674-697.
  • Miller LR, Grollman EA (2015) The social costs of gender nonconformity for transgender adults: Implications for discrimination and health. Sociol Forum, 30:809-831.
  • Mittal M, Thevenet-Morrison K, Landau J, Cai X, Gibson L, Schroeder A et al. (2017) An integrated HIV risk reduction intervention for women with a history of intimate partner violence: Pilot test results. AIDS Behav, 21:2219–2232.
  • Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, Hwahng S, Mason M, Macri M et al. (2013) Gender abuse, depressive symptoms, and HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among male-to-female transgender persons: a three-year prospective study. Am J Public Health, 103:300–307.
  • Onur Şimşek K, Özgülnar N (2024) Evaluation of health status of transgender sex workers in Turkey: A qualitative study. Aten Primaria, 56:102875.
  • Peitzmeier SM, Malik M, Kattari SK, Marrow E, Stephenson R, Agénor M et al. (2020) Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. Am J Pub Health, 110:e1-e14.
  • Peng K, Zhu X, Gillespie A, Wang Y, Gao Y, Xin Y et al. (2019) Self-reported rates of abuse, neglect, and bullying experienced by transgender and gender-nonbinary adolescents in China. JAMA Network Open, 2:e1911058.
  • Perry B, Dyck DR (2013) “I don’t know where it is safe”: Trans women’s experiences of violence. Crit Crim, 22:49-63.
  • Polat A, Şirin S (2020) Cinsiyet Disforisi Multidisipliner Yaklaşım İlkeleri. Ankara, Nobel Tıp Kitapevleri.
  • Poteat VP, Mereish EH, DiGiovanni CD, Koenig BW (2011) The effects of general and homophobic victimization on adolescents' psychosocial and educational concerns: the importance of intersecting identities and parent support. J Couns Psychol, 58:597-609.
  • Radkowsky M, Siegel LJ (1997) The gay adolescent: stressors, adaptations, and psychosocial interventions. Clin Psychol Rev, 17:191-216.
  • Reisner SL, White JM, Bradford JB, Mimiaga MJ (2014) Transgender health disparities: comparing full cohort and nested matched-pair study designs in a community health center. LGBT Health, 1:177-184.
  • Ristock JL (2011) Introduction: Intimate partner violence in LGBTQ lives. In Intimate Partner Violence in LGBTQ Lives. (Ed JL Ristock):9-18. New York, Routledge.
  • Robinson A (2016) Heteronormativity and homonormativity. In The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies (Ed N Naples): doi: 10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss013. Hoboken, NJ, Wiley-.
  • Rogers M (2017) Transphobic 'honour'-based abuse: A conceptual tool. Sociology, 51:225-240.
  • Sánchez-Fuentes MDM, Araújo LF, Parra-Barrera SM, Fontes ÉRS., Santos JVO, Moyano N (2021) Transphobia and gender identity: social representations of trans women from Brazil and Colombia. Cien Saude Colet, 26:5793-5804.
  • Shaw E, Butler C, Langdridge D, Gibson S, Barker M, Lenihan P et al. (2012) Guidelines and Literature Review for Psychologists Working Therapeutically With Sexual And Gender Minority Clients. London, British Psychological Society.
  • Silva ICBD, Araújo EC, Santana ADDS, Moura JWDS, Ramalho MNA, Abreu PD (2022) Gender violence perpetrated against trans women. Rev Bras Enferm, 75:e20210173.
  • Soner G, Aydin Avci İ (2023) LGBTI + persons' experiences, expectations, and suggestions for improving LGBTI + healthcare services in Turkey: a qualitative study. Issues Ment Health Nurs, 44:834–843.
  • Stoller RJ (1964) The hermaphroditic identity of hermaphrodites. J Nerv Ment Disease, 139:453-457.
  • Stotzer RL (2009) Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data. Aggress Violent Behav, 14:170-179.
  • Stotzer RL (2017) Data sources hinder our understanding of transgender murders. Am J Public Health, 107:1362-1363.
  • Strauss P, Cook A, Winter S, Watson V, Wright Toussaint D, Lin A (2020 Associations between negative life experiences and the mental health of trans and gender diverse young people in Australia: findings from Trans Pathways. Psychol Med, 50:808-817.
  • Şahin FY, Gençer DB (2023) A study on the life satisfaction, resilience, depression, anxiety, and stress levels of LGBT+ individuals according to parental acceptance and life skills. J Hum Sci, 20:311-330.
  • Tsapalas D, Parker M, Ferrer L, Bernales M (2021) Gender-based violence, perspectives in Latin America and the Caribbean. Hisp Health Care Int, 19:23-37.
  • Tüzün Z, Başar K, Akgül S (2022) Social connectedness matters: Depression and anxiety in transgender youth during the Covid-19 pandemic. J Sex Med, 19:650-660.
  • Uluyol FM (2016) Cinsiyet kimliği ve cinsel yönelime bağlı zorbalığa maruz kalma, sosyal destek ve psikolojik iyilik hali arasındaki ilişki. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 19:87-96.
  • United Nations (2022) Homophobic and Transphobic Violence Fact Sheet. New York, USA, United Nations for LGBT Equality.
  • Verschoor AM, Poortinga J (1988) Psychosocial differences between Dutch male and female transsexuals. Arch Sex Behav, 17:173-178.
  • Warner M (1991) Introduction: Fear of a queer planet. Social Text, 29:3-17.
  • White C, Goldberg J (2006) Expanding our understanding of gendered violence: Violence against trans peopleand their loved ones. Can Woman Stud, 25:124-127.
  • Whittle S, Turner L (2009) Hate Crime in the EU. London, Press For Change.
  • Wirtz AL, Poteat TC, Malik M, Glass N (2020) Gender-Based Violence Against Transgender People in the United States: A Call for Research and Programming. Trauma Violence Abuse, 21:227-241.
  • Witcomb GL, Claes L, Bouman WP, Nixon E, Motmans J, Arcelus J (2019) Experiences and psychological wellbeing outcomes associated with bullying in treatment-seeking transgender and gender-diverse youth. LGBT Health, 6:216-226.
  • Xu L, Chang R, Chen Y, Xia D, Xu C, Yu X et al. (2023) The prevalence of childhood sexual experiences and intimate partner violence among transgender women in China: Risk factors for lifetime suicidal ideation. Front Public Health, 10:1037622.
  • Yen NTH, Xuan BT, Xuan BT, Thi Mai Ha N, Diep BN, Van Chien N et al. (2016) Reaching Out: Preventing and Addressing SOGIE-Related School Violence in Vietnam. Bangkok, UNESCO.
  • Yerke AF, DeFeo J (2016) Redefining intimate partner violence beyond the binary to ınclude transgender people. J Fam Violence, 31:975-979.
  • Yüksel Ş, Ertekin BA, Öztürk M, Bıkmaz PS, Oglagu Z (2017) A clinically neglected topic: Risk of suicide in transgender individuals. Noro Psikiyatr Ars, 54:28-32.
Toplam 89 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Psikiyatri
Bölüm Derleme
Yazarlar

Pelin Göksel 0000-0002-6328-2557

Yayımlanma Tarihi 25 Aralık 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 10 Ocak 2024
Kabul Tarihi 3 Nisan 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024

Kaynak Göster

AMA Göksel P. Discrimination and Violence against Transgender People. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar. Aralık 2024;16(4):731-739. doi:10.18863/pgy.1417609

Creative Commons Lisansı
Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar Creative Commons Atıf-Gayriticari-Türetilemez 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.