Psychopathology from Crime to Release: Mental Health in the Criminal Justice System

Öz

Crime is not merely a legal violation, but a complex phenomenon shaped by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors. This study examines the role of psychopathology in criminal behavior, during incarceration, and the post-release period within the framework of current literature. Consistent findings in the literature indicate a relationship between criminal behavior and psychotic disorders, personality disorders, mood disorders, substance use disorders, and intellectual disability. Psychopathology is considered not as a direct cause of crime, but as a factor that increases an individual’s risk of engaging in criminal behavior. In particular, substance use disorders, comorbid psychiatric conditions, high psychopathy scores, and high impulsivity emerge as significant risk factors for criminal behavior. The markedly higher prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses among incarcerated individuals compared to the general population underscores the importance of diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation services within the criminal justice system. However, the inadequacy of mental health services both during incarceration and after release may contribute to increased recidivism. The literature highlights the need for holistic, individualized, and effective psychosocial intervention programs to prevent crime and reduce recidivism rates. Future research in this field is expected to contribute to evidence-based policy development.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• crime
• Psychopathology
• prisoners
• Prisons
• recidivism

Suçtan Tahliyeye Psikopatoloji: Ceza Adalet Sisteminde Ruh Sağlığı

Öz

Suç, yalnızca hukuki bir ihlal değil; biyolojik, psikolojik ve sosyal etmenlerin etkileşimiyle şekillenen karmaşık bir olgudur. Bu çalışmada suç davranışında, cezaevinde ve tahliye sonrası süreçte psikopatolojinin rolü, güncel literatür bağlamında incelenmektedir. Psikotik bozuklukların, kişilik bozukluklarının, duygudurum bozukluklarının, madde kullanım bozukluklarının ve zekâ geriliğinin suç davranışı ile ilişkisine dair literatürde tutarlı sonuçlar bulunmaktadır. Psikopatoloji suçun doğrudan nedeni olarak değil, bireyin suç davranışına yönelik riski artıran bir faktör olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Özellikle madde kullanım bozuklukları, komorbid psikiyatrik bozukluklar, yüksek psikopati puanları ve yüksek dürtüsellik suç davranışı açısından ciddi risk faktörleri olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Hükümlülerde psikiyatrik tanı oranlarının genel topluma kıyasla belirgin düzeyde yüksek olması adli sistemde tanı, tedavi ve rehabilitasyon hizmetlerinin önemini ortaya koymaktadır. Bununla birlikte cezaevindeki ve tahliye sonrasındaki ruh sağlığı hizmetlerinin yetersizliği, suç tekrarını artırabilmektedir. Literatürde suçun önlenmesi ve suç tekrarı oranlarının azaltılmasında; bütüncül, bireyselleştirilmiş ve etkili psikososyal müdahale programlarına olan gereksinim işaret edilmektedir. Bu alanda yapılacak yeni çalışmaların, bilimsel temelli politika geliştirme sürecine katkı sağlayabileceği öngörülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• suç
• psikopatoloji
• mahkumlar
• hapishaneneler
• suç tekrarı

Kaynakça

1. Akbaş A (2024) Suç sosyolojisi: Türkiye’deki hapishanelerin mekânsal ve zamansal bağlamı. Güvenlik Çalışmaları Dergisi, 26:104-131.
2. Altuner D, Engin N, Gürer C, Akyay İ, Akgül A (2009) Madde kullanımı ve suç ilişkisi: kesitsel bir araştırma. Tıp Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7:87-94.
3. Amil B, Balcıoğlu YH, Öncü F (2021) Cezaevi popülasyonunda dünya örnekleriyle ruh sağlığı uygulamaları ve yol haritası. Current Research and Reviews in Psychology and Psychiatry, 1:46-76.
4. Andreoli S, Santos M, Quintana M, Ribeiro W, Blay S, Taborda J, De Jesus Mari J (2014) Prevalence of mental disorders among prisoners in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. PLoS One, 9:e88836.
5. Artuk M, Alşahin M (2016) Hapis cezalarının ve cezaevlerinin tarihi gelişimi. Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, 21:297-337.
6. Asan Ö, Tıkır B, Okay İT, Göka E (2015) Bir AMATEM birimine başvuran alkol ve madde kullanım bozukluğu olan hastaların sosyodemografik ve klinik özellikleri. Bağımlılık Dergisi, 16:1-8.
7. Ayar E, Ayar Y (2021) Ruhsal bozukluklarda suça yönelim: derleme. Abant Sağlık Bilimleri ve Teknolojileri Dergisi, 1:83-91.
8. Ayirolimeethal A, Ragesh G, Ramanujam JM, George B (2014) Psychiatric morbidity among prisoners. Indian J Psychiatry, 56:150153.

9. Baillargeon J, Binswanger IA, Penn JV, Williams BA, Murray OJ (2009) Psychiatric disorders and repeat incarcerations: The revolving prison door. Am J Psychiatry, 166:103- 109.
10. Balcioglu YH, Kirlioglu Balcioglu SS, Oncu F, Turkcan A (2021) Psychopathy, temperament, and character dimensions of personality as risk determinants of criminal recidivism in schizophrenia patients. J Forensic Sci. 66:2340-2353.
11. Baranyi G, Scholl C, Fazel S, Patel V, Priebe S, Mundt AP (2019) Severe mental illness and substance use disorders in prisoners in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies. Lancet Glob Health, 7:e461-e471.
12. Bedaso A, Ayalew M, Mekonnen N, Duko B (2020) Global estimates of the prevalence of depression among prisoners: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Depress Res Treat, 2020:3695209.
13. Bhavsar V, Ventriglio A (2017) Violence, victimization and mental health. Int J Soc Psychiatry, 63:475-479.
14. Binbay T, Ulaş H, Elbi H, Alptekin K (2011) Türkiye’de psikoz epidemiyolojisi: Yaygınlık tahminleri ve başvuru oranları üzerine sistematik bir gözden geçirme. Turk Psikiyatri Derg, 22:40-52.
15. Binswanger IA, Merrill JO, Krueger PM, White MC, Booth RE, Elmore JG (2010) Gender differences in chronic medical, psychiatric, and substance-dependence disorders among jail inmates. Am J Public Health 100:476-482.
16. Blonigen DM, Macia KS, Smelson D, Timko C (2020) Criminal recidivism among justice- involved veterans following substance use disorder residential treatment. Addict Behav, 106:106357.
17. Bolu A, Toygar M, Pan E, Erdem M, Ünlü G, Balıkçı A (2014) Evaluation of forensic cases in the psychiatric clinic of a training hospital; five-year review. Gulhane Medical Journal, 56:1-4.
18. Bowler N, Phillips C, Rees P (2018) The association between imported factors and prisoners' mental health: Implications for adaptation and intervention. Int J Law Psychiatry. 57:61-66.
19. Bukten A, Stavseth MR (2021) Suicide in prison and after release: a 17-year national cohort study. Eur J Epidemiol, 36:1075-1083.
20. Butler T, Indıg D, Allnutt S, Mamoon H (2011) Co‐occurring mental illness and substance use disorder among Australian prisoners. Drug Alcohol Rev, 30:188–194.
21. Carbone EA, de Filippis R, Caroleo M, Calabrò G, Staltari FA, Destefano L, et al. (2021) Antisocial personality disorder in bipolar disorder: A systematic review. Medicina (Kaunas), 57:183.
22. Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H, Fazel S (2015) Substance use disorders, psychiatric disorders, and mortality after release from prison: A nationwide longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry, 2:422-430.
23. Coolidge FL, Marle PD, Van Horn SA, Segal DL (2011) Clinical syndromes, personality disorders, and neurocognitive differences in male and female inmates. Behav Sci Law, 29:741-751.
24. Çabuk G (2022) Çocuk suçluluğu bağlamında çocuğu suça iten nedenler. Sosyal Politika ve Sosyal Hizmet Çalışmaları Dergisi, 3:129-143.
25. Çaynak S, Kutlu Y (2016) Bir grup tutuklu ve hükümlünün ruhsal belirtileri, intihar olasılığı ve başa çıkma yolları. Anadolu Psikiyatri Derg, 17:93-98.
26. Dahlenburg SC, Bartsch DR, Gilson KJ (2024) Global prevalence of borderline personality disorder and self-reported symptoms of adults in prison: A systematic review and meta- analysis. Int J Law Psychiatry. 97:102032.
27. Deniz D (2017) Psychopathological processes affecting crime behavior. Aydın İnsan ve Toplum Dergisi, 3:1-8.
28. Di Lorito C, Völlm B, Dening T (2018) Psychiatric disorders among older prisoners: a systematic review and comparison study against older people in the community. Aging Ment Health, 22:1-10.
29. Domino ME, Gertner A, Grabert B, Cuddeback GS, Childers T, Morrissey JP (2019) Do timely mental health services reduce re-incarceration among prison releasees with severe mental illness? Health Serv Res, 54:592-602.
30. Durbeej N, Palmstierna T, Berman AH, Kristiansson M, Gumpert CH (2014) Offenders with mental health problems and problematic substance use: affective psychopathic personality traits as potential barriers to participation in substance abuse interventions. J Subst Abuse Treat, 46:574-583.
31. Edens JF, Kelley SE, Lilienfeld SO, Skeem JL, Douglas KS (2015) DSM-5 antisocial personality disorder: Predictive validity in a prison sample. Law Hum Behav, 39:123-129.
32. Edgemon TG, Clay-Warner J (2019) Inmate mental health and the pains of imprisonment. Society and Mental Health, 9:33-50.
33. Edwards ER, Sissoko DRG, Abrams D, Samost D, La Gamma S, Geraci J (2020) Connecting mental health court participants with services: Process, challenges, and recommendations. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 26:463-475.
34. Epsoylu H, Nehir S (2019) Madde kullanım varlığının, suç işleyen ve işlemeyen hastalarda suç ve şiddet özelliklerine etkisi. STED: Sürekli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi, 28:108–113.
35. Evans C, Forrester A, Jarrett M, Huddy V, Campbell C, Byrne M et al. (2016) Early detection and early intervention in prison: improving outcomes and reducing prison returns. J Forens Psychiatry Psychol, 28:91-107.
36. Eyüboğlu M, Eyüboğlu D (2018) Suça sürüklenen çocuklarda psikiyatrik bozukluklar, sosyodemografik özellikler ve risk faktörleri. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 21:7-14.
37. Favril L, Rich JD, Hard J, Fazel S (2024) Mental and physical health morbidity among people in prisons: an umbrella review. Lancet Public Health, 9:e250-e260.
38. Favril L, Shaw J, Fazel S (2022) Prevalence and risk factors for suicide attempts in prison. Clin Psychol Rev, 97:102190.
39. Favril L, Yu R, Hawton K, Fazel S (2020) Risk factors for self-harm in prison: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 7:682-691.
40. Fazel S, Gulati G, Linsell L, Geddes JR, Grann M (2009a) Schizophrenia and violence: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med, 6:e1000120.
41. Fazel S, Hayes AJ, Bartellas K, Clerici M, Trestman R (2016) Mental health of prisoners: Prevalence, adverse outcomes, and interventions. Lancet Psychiatry, 3:871-881.
42. Fazel S, Långström N, Hjern A, Grann M, Lichtenstein P (2009b) Schizophrenia, substance abuse, and violent crime. JAMA, 301:2016-2023.
43. Fazel S, Lichtenstein P, Grann M, Goodwin GM, Långström N (2010) Bipolar disorder and violent crime: new evidence from population-based longitudinal studies and systematic review. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 67:931-938.
44. Fazel S, Seewald K (2012) Severe mental illness in 33588 prisoners worldwide: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 200:364-373.
45. Fazel S, Yoon IA, Hayes AJ (2017) Substance use disorders in prisoners: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis in recently incarcerated men and women. Addiction, 112:1725-1739.
46. Fazel S, Zetterqvist J, Larsson H, Långström N, Lichtenstein P (2014) Antipsychotics, mood stabilisers, and risk of violent crime. Lancet, 384:1206-1214.
47. Flórez G, Ferrer V, García L, Crespo M, Pérez M, Saiz P (2019) Personality disorders, addictions and psychopathy as predictors of criminal behaviour in a prison sample. Rev Esp Sanid Penit, 21:62-79.
48. Forrester A, Hopkin G (2019) Mental health in the criminal justice system: A pathways approach to service and research design. Crim Behav Ment Health, 29:207-217.
49. Forțu AC, Rada C (2025) Drug use and alcohol abuse among inmates-Causes, consequences, prevention. Anthropological Researches and Studies, 15:92-112.
50. Fovet T, Geoffroy PA, Vaiva G, Adins C, Thomas P, Amad A (2015) Individuals with bipolar disorder and their relationship with the criminal justice system: a critical review. Psychiatr Serv, 66:348-353.
51. Fovet T, Pignon B, Wathelet M, Benradia I, Roelandt JL, Jardri R et al. (2023) Admission to jail and psychotic symptoms: a study of the psychotic continuum in a sample of recently incarcerated men. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 58:25-34.
52. Fovet T, Plancke L, Amariei A, Benradia I, Carton F, Sy A, et al. (2020) Mental disorders on admission to jail: A study of prevalence and a comparison with a community sample in the north of France. Eur Psychiatry, 63(1):e43.
53. Glorney E, Ullah H, Brooker C (2020) Standards of mental health care in prisons in England and Wales: A qualitative study of reports from Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Prisons. Int J Forensic Ment Health, 19:283-296.
54. Guilherme EA, Moreno RA (2024) Mood disorders among adolescents in conflict with the law and in custody. Psychiatry Psychol Law, 31:47-56.
55. Halle C, Tzani-Pepelasi C, Pylarinou NR, Fumagalli A (2020) The link between mental health, crime and violence. New Ideas Psychol, 58:100779.
56. Hawton K, Linsell L, Adeniji T, Sariaslan A, Fazel S (2014) Self-harm in prisons in England and Wales: an epidemiological study of prevalence, risk factors, clustering, and subsequent suicide. Lancet, 383:1147-1154.
57. Herttua K, Scola G, Paljarvi T, Fazel S (2025) Associations between antidepressants and risk of suicidal behavior and violent crimes in personality disorder. Eur Psychiatry, 68(1):e28.
58. İnan S, Yıldızhan E, Öncü F (2018) İnsana yönelik ciddi suç işleyen adli psikiyatri olgularının hastalık öyküleri, sosyodemografik ve suç özellikleri. Turk Psikiyatri Derg, 29:258-68.
59. Janca E, Keen C, Willoughby M, Borschmann R, Sutherland G, Kwon S, et al. (2023) Sex differences in suicide, suicidal ideation, and self-harm after release from incarceration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 58:355-371.
60. Jesus M (2021) Gender differences in a forensic psychiatric ward: A retrospective study. Eur Psychiatry, 64(Suppl 1):S122.
61. Karakartal D (2019) Cezaevinde yatan mahkûmların ruh sağlıklarının incelenmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler ve Eğitim Dergisi, 1:25-41.
62. Karakartal D, Yalçınkaya M (2019) Cezaevinde yatan mahkumlara sunulan psiko-sosyal destek hizmetlerinin incelenmesi. Uluslararası Beşeri Bilimler ve Eğitim Dergisi, 5:207-222.
63. Kaya N, Güler Ö, Çilli A (2004) Konya Kapalı Cezaevi'ndeki mahkumlarda psikiyatrik bozuklukların yaygınlığı. Anadolu Psikiyatri Derg, 5:85-91.
64. Khalifeh H, Johnson S, Howard LM, Borschmann R, Osborn D, Dean K, Hart C, Hogg J, Moran P (2015) Violent and non-violent crime against adults with severe mental illness. Br J Psychiatry, 206:275-282.
65. Kılıçaslan F (2022) Retrospective review of forensic cases referred to the child and adolescent psychiatric outpatient clinic. Harran Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, 19:44-51.
66. Kilic-Demir B, Kizilpinar SC, Polat S (2024) The violence profile of male mentally disordered offenders in a high secure unit in Turkiye. Int J Law Psychiatry, 94:101983.
67. Kulkara NS, Güllü D, Kıvrıkoğlu F (2020) Şiddet ve duygudurum bozukluğu ilişkisi: Bir gözden geçirme. Türkiye Bütüncül Psikoterapi Dergisi, 3:51-66.
68. Lamberti JS, Katsetos V, Jacobowitz DB, Weisman RL (2020) Psychosis, mania and criminal recidivism: associations and ımplications for prevention. Harv Rev Psychiatry, 28:179-202.
69. Large MM, Nielssen O (2011) People with bipolar disorder and comorbid substance abuse are six times more likely to be convicted of violent crime than the general population. Evid Based Ment Health, 14:17.
70. Mazher S, Arai T (2025) Behind bars: A trauma-informed examination of mental health through importation and deprivation in prisons. Eur J Trauma Dissociation, 9:100516.
71. McLeod KE, Martin RE, Butler A, Young JT, Southalan L, Topp SM, et al. (2020) Global prison health care governance and health equity: A critical lack of evidence. Am J Public Health, 110:303-308.
72. McNiel DE, Binder RL, Robinson JC (2005) Incarceration associated with homelessness, mental disorder, and co-occurring substance abuse. Psychiatr Serv, 56:840-846.
73. McTernan N, Griffin E, Cully G, Kelly E, Hume S, Corcoran P (2023) The incidence and profile of self-harm among prisoners: findings from the Self-Harm Assessment and Data Analysis Project 2017-2019. Int J Prison Health, 19:565-577.
74. Moore KE, Oberleitner LMS, Zonana HV, Buchanan AW, Pittman BP, Verplaetse TL, Angarita GA, Roberts W, McKee SA (2019) Psychiatric disorders and crime in the US population: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions wave III. J Clin Psychiatry, 80:18m12317.
75. Nergiz H, Işıklı S (2021) Suça Yönelik Tutumlar ve İlişkiler Ölçeği Türkçe formunun geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Turk Psikiyatri Derg, 32:118-128.
76. Nummenmaa L, Lukkarinen L, Sun L, Putkinen V, Seppälä K, Karjalainen T, et al. (2021) Brain basis of psychopathy in criminal offenders and general population. Cereb Cortex, 31:4104-4114.
77. Okamura M, Okada T, Okumura Y (2023) Recidivism among prisoners with severe mental disorders. Heliyon, 9:e17007.
78. Oklahoma Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services (2023) Offender Screening Report. Oklahoma City, OK, Oklahoma Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services
79. Rebbapragada N, Furtado V, Hawker-Bond GW (2021) Prevalence of mental disorders in prisons in the UK: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJPsych Open, 7:S283-S284.
80. Resmi Gazete (2004a) Ceza ve Güvenlik Tedbirlerinin İnfazı Hakkında Kanun (2004, 29 Aralık) (Sayı: 25685). Ankara, TC Başbakanlık.
81. Resmi Gazete (2004b) Türk Ceza Kanunu (2004, 12 Ekim) (Sayı:25611). Ankara, TC Başbakanlık.
82. Romano CA, Ravagnani L, Convertini A, Dassisti L, Fanizza AR, Misceo F, et al. (2020) The aging process in prison: Pathologies and health conditions in old inmates. An epidemiological research in Italy. Clin Ter, 171:e340-e345.
83. Routh D, Abess G, Makin D, Stohr MK, Hemmens C, Yoo J (2017) Transgender inmates in prisons: A review of applicable statutes and policies. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol, 61:645-666.
84. Saladino V, Lin H, Zamparelli E, Verrastro V (2021) Neuroscience, empathy, and violent crime in an ıncarcerated population: A narrative review. Front Psychol, 12:694212.
85. Sariaslan A, Larsson H, Fazel S (2016) Genetic and environmental determinants of violence risk in psychotic disorders: a multivariate quantitative genetic study of 1.8 million Swedish twins and siblings. Mol Psychiatry, 21:1251-1256.
86. Schnittker J, Massoglia M, Uggen C (2012) Out and down: Incarceration and psychiatric disorders. J Health Soc Behav, 53:448-464.
87. Severson RE (2019) Gender differences in mental health, institutional misconduct, and disciplinary segregation. Crim Justice Behav, 46:1719-1737.
88. Shishane K, John-Langba J, Onifade E (2023) Mental health disorders and recidivism among incarcerated adult offenders in a correctional facility in South Africa: A cluster analysis. PloS One, 18:e0278194.
89. Simpson AIF, Gerritsen C, Maheandiran M, Adamo V, Vogel T, Fulham L, et al. (2022) A systematic review of reviews of correctional mental health services using the STAIR framework. Front Psychiatry, 12:747202.
90. Skeem JL, Manchak S, Peterson JK (2011) Correctional policy for offenders with mental illness: Creating a new paradigm for recidivism reduction. Law Hum Behav, 35:110-126.
91. Stijelja S, Mishara BL (2022) Preventing suicidal and self-Injurious behavior in correctional facilities: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine, 51:101560.
92. Stone MH (2007) Violent crimes and their relationship to personality disorders. Personal Ment Health, 1:138-153.
93. Şeker FD, Zengin Taş E (2023) Investigation of the impulsivity levels and substance use characteristics of recidivists. OPUS J Soc Res, 20(Special Issue–Human Behavior and Social Institutions):917-928.
94. Şentürk S (2018) Suça sürüklenmiş çocuklarda ana-baba tutumları ve suçun nedenleri Disiplinlerarası Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2:38-48.
95. Toker Uğurlu T, Tekkanat Ç, Koç H, Ateşci FF (2020) Alkol ve madde kullanım bozukluğu olan bireylerde suç davranışının retrospektif incelemesi. Pamukkale Tıp Dergisi, 13:739- 747.
96. Tutuncu R, Oguz M, Ates A, Ercan S, Semiz UB, Oğuz N et al. (2015) The relationship between comorbid psychiatric illnesses and psychopathy levels on male individuals with antisocial personality disorder in the Turkish community. Eur Psychiatry, 30 (Suppl 1):406.
97. Van Dorn R, Volavka J, Johnson N (2012) Mental disorder and violence: is there a relationship beyond substance use?. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 47:487-503.
98. Wallace D, Wang X (2020) Does in-prison physical and mental health impact recidivism?. SSM Popul Health, 11:100569.
99. Warren JI, Burnette M, South SC, Chauhan P, Bale R, Friend R (2002) Personality disorders and violence among female prison inmates. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law, 30:502-509.
100. Webb RT, Shaw J, Stevens H, Mortensen PB, Appleby L, Qin P (2012) Suicide risk among violent and sexual criminal offenders. J Interpers Violence, 27:3405-3424.
101. Weber K, Morier S, Menu C, Bertschy P, Herrmann FR, Giannakopoulos P (2024) Court- ordered forensic psychiatry treatment in prison: determinants of outcome and risk mitigation. Front Psychiatry, 15:1436962.
102. Wilson JA, Wood PB (2014) Dissecting the relationship between mental illness and return to incarceration. J Crim Justice, 42:527-537.
103. World Prison Brief (2025) Highest to lowest-Prison population total. London, Institute for Criminal Policy Research, Birkbeck, University of London.
104. Yılmaz C (2018) Kriminolojik açıdan: akıl hastalığı ve suç. Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, 24:743-765.
105. Young S, Moss D, Sedgwick O, Fridman M, Hodgkins P (2015) A meta-analysis of the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in incarcerated populations. Psychol Med, 45:247-258.
106. Zhong S, Senior M, Yu R, Perry A, Hawton K, Shaw J, et al. (2021) Risk factors for suicide in prisons: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health, 6:e164-e174.
107. Zhou X (2024) Analysis of psychopathological communities underlying crime rates and mental disorders. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media, 33:152-157.