Review of Attitudes Toward Menstruation from the Perspective of Ambivalent Sexism Theory

Abstract

Menstruation is a biological process that is a natural part of reproductive health; however, it is also socially and culturally gendered. Social stigmas around menstruation often construct it as a form of “illness”, “impurity”, or “restriction”. This sociocultural construct defines which activities are considered “forbidden” or “permissible” for women during menstruation, thereby regulating their behaviors and social involvement. Furthermore, menstruation is usually seen as a “private” or “taboo” topic, and when it is discussed, it is often linked with derogatory or shameful language. Discriminatory attitudes toward women’s bodies during the menstrual process are more explicit in developing and underdeveloped countries, while in developed societies, they exist in more subtle forms. Nonetheless, these attitudes are shared by both women and men, emphasizing the universal link between menstruation and gender ideology. This article seeks to conceptualize attitudes toward menstruation through the lens of Ambivalent Sexism Theory, examine the interconnectedness of hostile and benevolent sexism within these cultural representations, and analyze women’s and men’s attitudes toward menstruation. The existing literature is reviewed within a comprehensive framework, aiming to establish a theoretical foundation for future empirical studies on this topic.

Keywords

• Menstruation
• Ambivalent Sexism
• Benevolent Sexism
• Hostile Sexism

Menstrüasyona İlişkin Tutumların Çelişik Duygulu Cinsiyetçilik Kuramı Perspektifinden Gözden Geçirilmesi

Öz

Menstrüasyon, üreme sağlığının doğal bir parçası olan biyolojik bir süreçtir; ancak yalnızca biyolojik değil, aynı zamanda toplumsal olarak da cinsiyetlendirilmiş bir olgudur. Toplumlarda menstrüasyona ilişkin damgalamalar, bu süreci sıklıkla bir “hastalık”, “kirlenme” ya da “kısıtlama” biçiminde inşa eder. Bu sosyal inşa, kadınlara menstrüasyon dönemlerinde hangi etkinliklerin “yasak” ya da “izinli” olduğuna dair normatif sınırlar koyarak, onların davranışlarını ve toplumsal rollerini kısıtlar. Ayrıca menstrüasyon genellikle “özel” veya “mahrem” bir mesele olarak görülür ve hakkında konuşulurken çoğunlukla aşağılayıcı veya utandırıcı bir dil kullanılır. Menstrüasyon üzerinden kadınlara yöneltilen ayrımcı tutumlar, gelişmekte olan ve az gelişmiş ülkelerde açık biçimde gözlemlenirken, gelişmiş ülkelerde ise daha örtük biçimlerde varlığını sürdürmektedir. Bununla birlikte, bu tutumların hem kadınlar hem de erkekler tarafından paylaşılıyor olması, menstrüasyonun toplumsal cinsiyet rejimleriyle olan ilişkisini evrensel bir olgu hâline getirmektedir. Mevcut makale, menstrüasyona yönelik tutumların Çelişik Duygulu Cinsiyetçilik Kuramı perspektifinden nasıl kavramsallaştırılabileceğini ortaya koymayı, bu temsillerde düşmanca ve korumacı cinsiyetçilik boyutlarının nasıl iç içe geçtiğini tartışmayı ve nihayetinde kadınlar ile erkeklerin menstrüasyona ilişkin tutumlarını karşılaştırmalı olarak incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu kapsamda alanyazındaki bulgular bütüncül bir çerçevede değerlendirilerek, gelecekteki ampirik araştırmalara kuramsal bir temel oluşturması hedeflenmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Menstrüasyon
• Çelişik Duygulu Cinsiyetçilik
• Korumacı Cinsiyetçilik
• Düşmanca Cinsiyetçilik

Kaynakça

1. Allen KR, Kaestle CE, Goldberg AE (2011) More than just a punctuation mark: How boys and young men learn about menstruation. J Fam Issues, 32:1295-1319.
2. Altay M (2024) Regl iznine ilişkin tutumlar, çelişik duygulu cinsiyetçilik, regle ilişkin tutumlar ve toplumsal cinsiyet arasındaki ilişki. (Yüksek lisans tezi) Ankara, Ortadoğu Teknik Üniversitesi.
3. Ayar D, Polat F, Karasu F (2024) Ergenlere verilen menstrüel hijyen eğitiminin menstrüasyon davranışları ve öz yeterlik düzeylerine etkisi: Randomize kontrollü bir çalışma. Anatolian Journal of Health Research, 5:226-233.
4. Barnack-Tavlaris JL, Hansen K, Levitt RB, Reno M (2019) Taking leave to bleed: Perceptions and attitudes toward menstrual leave policy. Health Care Women Int, 40:1355-1373.
5. Batel S, Castro P (2009) A social representations approach to the communication between different spheres: An analysis of the impacts of two discursive formats. J Theory Soc Behav, 39:415-433.
6. Bhatt R, Bhatt M (2005) Perceptions of Indian women regarding menstruation. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 88:164-7.
7. Bitzer J, Tschudin S, Stadlmayr W (2005) Die menstruation und ihre bedeutung für die frauengesundheit. Zentralbl Gynakol, 127:282-287.
8. Blanco P (2018) Salud menstrual y derechos humanos. https://xaley.org/salud-menstrual/ (Accessed: 15.11.2025).

9. Bobel C (2015) Of blood, bodies and the limits of empathy, or the potential hazards of well-meaning make believe toward social change: An essay. Hysteria, 5:23-25.
10. Bobel C, Kissling EA (2011) Menstruation matters: Introduction to representations of the menstrual cycle. Womens Stud, 40:121-126.
11. Boyers M, Garikipati S, Biggane A, Douglas E, Hawkes N, Kiely C et al. (2022) Period poverty: The perceptions and experiences of impoverished women living in an inner-city area of northwest England. PLoS One, 17:e0269341.
12. Bozok M (2011) Sosyalizasyon ve erkeklerin yaşamları. Soru ve cevaplarla erkek ve erkeklikler içinde. (Ed Nihan Bozok):74-75. İstanbul, Sosyal Kalkınma ve Cinsiyet Eşitliği Politikaları Merkezi Derneği.
13. Brooks-Gunn J, Ruble DN (1986) Men’s and women’s attitudes and beliefs about the menstrual cycle. Sex Roles, 14:287-299.
14. Burrows A, Johnson S (2005) Girls’ experiences of menarche and menstruation. J Reprod Infant Psychol, 23:235-249.
15. Chabih HD, Elmasry MH (2022) The menstrual taboo and the nuances of misogyny: Comparing feminine hygiene TV advertisements in the Arab and western worlds. Journal of Arab & Muslim Media Research, 15:23-44
16. Chandra D, Gomez E (2019) Dignified menstruation Southeast Asia regional overview. In Dignified Menstruation: The Dignity of Menstruators Throughout Their Life Cycle: A Practical Handbook (Eds R Paudel):11-21. Kathmandu, Kathmandu Publication.
17. Chidya R, Kachuma O, Thole T, Banda L, Loewenberger M, Nicholson J (2024) Evaluation of knowledge, attitude, practices and effectiveness of menstrual hygiene interventions in rural schools from Lilongwe, Malawi. BMC Public Health, 24:1435.
18. Chrisler JC (2008) The menstrual cycle in a biopsychosocial context. In Psychology of Women: A Handbook of Issues and Theories (Eds FL Denmark, MA Paludi):400-439. Westport, CT, Praeger.
19. Chrisler JC (2013) Teaching taboo topics: Menstruation, menopause, and the psychology of women. Psychol Women Q, 37:128-132.
20. Chrisler JC, Caplan P (2002) The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Ms. Hyde: How PMS became a cultural phenomenon and a psychiatric disorder. Annu Rev Sex Res, 13:274-306.
21. Chrisler JC, Gorman JA, Marván ML, Johnston-Robledo I (2014) Ambivalent sexism and attitudes toward women in different stages of their reproductive lives: A semantic, cross-cultural approach. Health Care Women Int, 35:634-57.
22. Chrisler JC, Johnston-Robledo I (2000) Motherhood and reproductive issues. In Issues In The Psychology of Women. (Eds M Biaggio, M Hersen):199-226. New York, Plenum.
23. Chrisler JC, Johnston-Robledo I (2018) Woman’s Embodied Self: Feminist Perspectives on Identity and Image. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association.
24. Chrisler JC, Marván ML, Gorman JA, Rossini M (2015) Body appreciation and attitudes toward menstruation. Body Image, 12:78-81.
25. Costos D, Ackerman R, Paradis L (2002) Recollections of menarche: Communication between mothers and daughters regarding menstruation. Sex Roles, 46:49-59.
26. Courtenay WH (2000) Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s wellbeing: A theory of gender and health. Soc Sci Med, 50:1385-1401.
27. Çevirme AS, Çevirme H, Karaoğlu L, Uğurlu N, Korkmaz Y (2010) The perception of menarche and menstruation among Turkish married women: Attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. Soc Behav Pers, 38:381-394.
28. Demircan Yıldırım P (2024) Toplumsal eşitsizliklerin göz ardı edilen yönü: Türkiye’de regl yoksulluğunun sosyal politika perspektifinden incelenmesi. Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 22:167-183.
29. Demirel S, Terzioğlu F (2003) Gaziantep ili Şahinbey ilçesi ilköğretim okullarında öğrenim gören 5. ve 6. sınıf kız öğrencilerin menstruasyon fizyolojisine ilişkin bilgilerinin belirlenmesi. Hemarge, 2:47-60.
30. Dhingra R, Manhas S, Kohli N, Mushtaq A (2007) A comparative study of understanding of menstrual process among married women belonging to two ecological settings. J Hum Ecol, 22:261-266.
31. Duby Z, Katz A, Musara P, Nabukeera J, Zimba CC, Woeber K et al. (2020) "The state of mind tells me it's dirty": Menstrual shame amongst women using a vaginal ring in sub-Saharan Africa. Women Health, 60:72-86.
32. Duveen G, Lloyd B (1990) Social Representations and the Development of Knowledge. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
33. Ekeanyanwu UC, Uzoechi CAC (2023) Assessment of an educational intervention on the perception of adolescent girls towards menstrual hygiene in Ogun State, Nigeria. Texila International Journal of Public Health, 9:109-118.
34. Erchull J (2013) Distancing through objectification? depictions of women's bodies in menstrual product advertisements. Sex Roles, 68:32-40.
35. Eyring JB, Crandall A, Magnusson BM (2023) A modified menstrual attitudes scale: Heteronormative attitudes, sexism, and attitudes toward menstruation in male and female adults. Arch Sex Behav, 52:1535-1547.
36. Fahs B (2020) There will be blood: Women’s positive and negative experiences with menstruation. Womens Reprod Health (Phila), 3:1-16.
37. Forbes GB, Adams-Curtis LE, White KB, Holmgren KM (2003) The role of hostile and benevolent sexism in women’s and men’s perceptions of the menstruating woman. Psychol Women Q, 27:58-63.
38. Giroux A (2008) Young French females' attitudes toward menstruation. (Undergraduate thesis). Dundee, Scotland, University of Abertay Dundee.
39. Glick P, Fiske S (1996) The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. J Pers Soc Psychol, 70:491-512.
40. Glick P, Fiske S (1997) Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychol Women Q, 21:119-135.
41. Glick P, Fiske S (2001) An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. Am Psychol, 56:109-118.
42. Gölbaşı Z, Doğaner G, Erbaş N (2012) The Effect of Menstrual Health Education Conducted with Peer Education Method to Adolescent Girls in 6-8 Classes on Information and Behaviors. TAF Prev Med Bull, 11:189-196.
43. Grose RG, Grabe S (2014) Sociocultural attitudes surrounding menstruation and alternative menstrual products: The explanatory role of self-objectification. Health Care Women Int, 35:677-694.
44. Güreşçi SA (2019) Hijyenik ped reklamlarında kadının dönüşümü (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). İstanbul, Kadir Has Üniversitesi.
45. Hassan S, Ghandour R, Bakri L, Shwiki S, Safi S, Abuzaid R et al. (2023) Menstrual health and hygiene among young Palestinian female university students in the West Bank: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 13:e069222.
46. Hennegan J, Montgomery P (2016) Do menstrual hygiene management interventions improve education and psychosocial outcomes for women and girls in low- and middle-income countries? A systematic review. PLoS One, 11:e0146985.
47. Hensel DJ, Fortenberry JD, Orr DP (2007) Situational and relational factors associated with coitus during vaginal bleeding among adolescent women. J Sex Res, 44:269-277.
48. Hoerster KD, Chrisler JC, Gorman J (2003) Attitudes toward and experience with menstruation in the US and India. Women Health, 38:77-95.
49. Hughes B (2018) Challenging menstrual norms in online medical advice: Deconstructing stigma through entangled art practice. Feminist Encounters, 2:1-15.
50. Jackson TE (2018) Policing a menstrual monster: How working class girls discuss their menstrual reactions and experiences. J Youth Stud, 22:153-170.
51. Johnston-Robledo I, Ball M, Lauta K, Zekoll A (2003) To bleed or not to bleed: Young women's attitudes toward menstrual suppression. Women Health, 38:59-75.
52. Kalman MB (2003) Adolescent girls, single-parent fathers, and menarche. Holist Nurs Pract, 17:36-40.
53. King S (2021) Menstrual leave: good intention, poor solution. In Aligning Perspective in Gender Mainstreaming (Eds J Hassard, LD Torres):151-177. Cham, Springer.
54. Kissling EA (1996a) Bleeding out loud: Communication about menstruation. Fem Psychol, 6:481-504.
55. Kissling EA (1999) When being female isn't feminine: Uta Pippig and the menstrual communication taboo in sports journalism. Sociol Sport J, 16:79-91.
56. Kissling EA (2002) On the rag on screen: Menarche in film and television. Sex Roles, 46:5-12.
57. Kissling EA (2006) Capitalizing On The Curse: The Business of Menstruation. Boulder, CO, Lynne Rienner.
58. Koff E, Rierdan J (1996) Premenarcheal expectations and postmenarcheal experiences of positive and negative menstrual-related changes. J Adolesc Health, 18:286-291.
59. Koff E, Rierdan J, Stubbs ML (1990) Conceptions and misconceptions of the menstrual cycle. Women Health, 16:119-136.
60. Lacher B (2019) Dignified menstruation is necessary for building a more equal society: A case from Morocco. In Dignified Menstruation: The Dignity of Menstruators Throughout Their Life Cycle: A Practical Handbook (Eds R Paudel):37-40. Kathmandu, Kathmandu Publication.
61. Lee J (2009) Bodies at menarche: Stories of shame, concealment, and sexual maturation. Sex Roles, 60:615-627.
62. Lee JJ, Wang T, Park J, Lee B, Lee H, Li PW et al. (2024) Menstrual and psychosocial characteristics associated with high risk of premenstrual dysphoric disorder among university students: A cross-sectional study. Women Health, 64:153-164.
63. Malefyt TDW, McCabe M (2016) Women's bodies, menstruation and marketing "protection": Interpreting a paradox of gendered discourses in consumer practices and advertising campaigns. Consumption Markets & Culture, 19:555-575.
64. Mansfield PK, Stubbs ML (2007) The menstrual cycle: Feminist research from the Society for Menstrual Cycle Research. Women Health, 46:1-5.
65. Martin E (1992) The Woman In The Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction. Boston, MA, Beacon Press.
66. Marván ML, Cortés-Iniestra S, González R (2005) Beliefs about and attitudes toward menstruation among young and middle-aged Mexicans. Sex Roles, 53:273-279.
67. Marván ML, Islas M, Vela L, Chrisler JC, Warren EA (2008) Stereotypes of women in different stages of their reproductive life: Data from Mexico and the United States. Health Care Women Int, 29:673-687.
68. Marván ML, Lama C (2009) Attitudes towards menstrual suppression and conformity to feminine norms in young and middle-aged Mexican women. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol, 30:147-155.
69. Marván ML, Ramírez-Esparza D, Cortés-Iniestra S, Chrisler JC (2006) Development of a new scale to measure beliefs about and attitudes toward menstruation (BATM): Data from Mexico and the United States. Health Care Women Int, 27:453-473.
70. Marván ML, Vazquez-Toboada R, Chrisler JC (2014) Ambivalent sexism, attitudes towards menstruation and menstrual cycle-related symptoms. Int J Psychol, 49:280-287.
71. McKee MD, Baquero M, Anderson MR, Alvarez A, Karasz A (2009) Vaginal douching among Latinas: Practices and meaning. Matern Child Health J, 13:98-106.
72. Miller WB, Smith PJ (1975) Elimination of the menses: Psychosocial aspects. J Psychiatr Res, 12:153-166.
73. Mondragon NI, Txertudi MB (2019) Understanding menstruation: Influence of gender and ideological factors. A study of young people's social representations. Fem Psychol, 29:1-17.
74. Monteiro A (2019) Dignified menstruation: A case from Brazil. In Dignified Menstruation: The Dignity of Menstruators Throughout Their Life Cycle: A Practical Handbook (Eds R Paudel):51-56. Kathmandu, Kathmandu Publication.
75. Morrison J, Basnet M, Bhatt A, Khimbanjar S, Chaulagain S, Sah N et al. (2018) Girls' menstrual management in five districts of Nepal: Implications for policy and practice. Studies in Social Justice, 12:251-272.
76. Moscovici S (1984) The phenomenon of social representations. In Social Representations (Eds RM Farr, S Moscovici):3-71. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
77. Narayan KA, Srinivasa DK, Pelto PJ, Veerammal S (2009) Puberty rituals, reproductive knowledge, and health of adolescent schoolgirls in South India. Asia Pac Popul J, 16:225-238.
78. Oxley T (1998) Menstrual management: An exploratory study. Fem Psychol, 8:185-191.
79. Özel S, Oskovi A, Korkut S, Memur T, Engin Üstün Y (2018) Gençlik merkezine başvuran adölesanların menarş duygu, menstruasyon algı‐bilgi ve özbakım pratikleri. Ankara Medical Journal, 4:675-682.
80. Parent C, Tetu C, Barbe C, Bonneau S, Gabriel R, Graesslin O et al. (2022) Menstrual hygiene products: A practice evaluation. J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod, 51:102261.
81. Paudel R (2019) Stigma, taboos, and restrictions in Africa. In Dignified Menstruation: The Dignity of Menstruators Throughout Their Life Cycle: A Practical Handbook (Eds R Paudel):36-47. Kathmandu, Kathmandu Publication.
82. Paudel R (2019b) Stigma, taboos, and restrictions in Europe. In Dignified Menstruation: The Dignity of Menstruators Throughout Their Life Cycle: A Practical Handbook (Eds R Paudel):46. Kathmandu, Kathmandu Publication.
83. Paudel R (2019c) Stigma, taboos, and restrictions in North America. In Dignified Menstruation: The Dignity of Menstruators Throughout Their Life Cycle: A Practical Handbook (Eds R Paudel):46-47. Kathmandu, Kathmandu Publication.
84. Peranovic T, Bentley B (2017) Men and menstruation: A qualitative exploration of beliefs, attitudes and experiences. Sex Roles, 77:113-124.
85. Rempel JK, Baumgartner B (2003) The relationship between attitudes towards menstruation and sexual attitudes, desires, and behaviour in women. Arch Sex Behav, 32:155-163.
86. Rich A (1976) Of Woman Born. New York, NY, Bantam.
87. Roberts T, Goldenberg JL, Power C, Pyszczynski T (2002) "Feminine protection": The effects of menstruation on attitudes towards women. Psychol Women Q, 26:131-139.
88. Rosner J, Samardzic T, Sarao MS (2022) Physiology, Female Reproduction. Treasure Island, FL, StatPearls Publishing.
89. Ruble DN (1977) Premenstrual symptoms: A reinterpretation. Science, 197:291-292.
90. Salawu MM, Okedare OO, Reed E, Kiene SM, Fawole OI (2022) Money, power, and relationships: Economic vulnerability in girls' lives and risk for partner violence among girls in Ibadan, Nigeria. Violence Against Women, 28:2805-2824.
91. Schooler D, Ward LM, Merriweather A, Caruthers AS (2005) Cycles of shame: Menstrual shame, body shame, and sexual decision-making. J Sex Res, 42:324-334.
92. Shankaraiah R, Haveri S, Mallappa K, Saheb W (2013) Menstrual practices among adolescent girls in rural area. Int J Child Adolesc Health, 6:305-309.
93. Snow LF, Johnson SM (1977) Modern day menstrual folklore: Some clinical implications. JAMA, 237:2736-2739.
94. Spadaro G, D'Elia SRG, Mosso CO (2018) Menstrual knowledge and taboo TV commercials: Effects on self-objectification among Italian and Swedish women. Sex Roles, 78:685-696.
95. Stubbs ML, Costos D (2004) Negative attitudes toward menstruation: Implications for disconnection within girls and between women. Women Ther, 27:37-54.
96. Sveen H (2016) Lava or code red: A linguistic study of menstrual expressions in English and Swedish. Womens Reprod Health, 3:145-159.
97. Swenson I, Foster B, Asay M (1995) Menstruation, menarche, and sexuality in the public school curriculum: School nurses' perceptions. Adolescence, 30:677-684.
98. Tampax Report (1981). The Tampax report: Summary of survey results on a study of attitudes towards menstruation. New York, Research & Forecasts.
99. Thakuri DS, Thapa RK, Singh S, Khanal GN, Khatri RB, Federici S (2021) A harmful religio-cultural practice (Chhaupadi) during menstruation among adolescent girls in Nepal: Prevalence and policies for eradication. PLoS One, 16:e0256968.
100. Thapa S, Bhattarai S, Aro AR (2019) "Menstrual blood is bad and should be cleaned": A qualitative case study on traditional menstrual practices and contextual factors in the rural communities of far-western Nepal. SAGE Open Med, 7:2050312119850400.
101. Thiyagarajan DK, Basit H, Jeanmonod R (2022) Physiology, Menstrual Cycle. Treasure Island, FL, StatPearls Publishing.
102. Thomson J, Amery F, Channon M, Puri M (2019) What's missing in MHM? Moving beyond hygiene in menstrual hygiene management. Sex Reprod Health Matters, 27:12-15.
103. Thuren BM (1994) Opening doors and getting rid of shame: Experiences of first menstruation in Valencia, Spain. Womens Stud Int Forum, 17:217-228.
104. Tijaro I (2021) Nuestras Reglas: de un Proceso Tedioso a un Ciclo Menstrual Poderoso. Barcelona, Diana.Turan.
105. Turan T, Ceylan S (2007) 11-14 yaş grubu ilköğretim öğrencilerinin menstruasyona yönelik bilgileri ve uygulamaları. Fırat Sağlık Hizmetleri Dergisi, 2:41-53.
106. UN (1994) Report of the International Conference on Population and Development. Cairo, 5-13 September 1994. New York, United Nations.
107. UN (2022) Statement by the High Commissioner for Human Rights on menstrual health. https://www.ohchr.org/es/statements/2022/06/high-commissioner-human-rights-statement-menstrual-health (Accessed 20.08.2025).
108. UNFPA (2025) Menstruation and human rights: frequently asked questions. United Nations Population Fund. https://www.unfpa.org/menstruationfaq (Accessed 20.08.2025).
109. UNICEF (2025) Menstrual health and hygiene remain inaccessible to millions of vulnerable women and girls. United Nations Children's Emergency Fund. https://www.unicef.org/wash/menstrual-hygiene (Accessed 20.08.2025).
110. Uskul AK (2004) Women's menarche stories from a multicultural sample. Soc Sci Med, 59:667-671.
111. Ussher J (2006) Managing the Monstrous Feminine: Regulating the Reproductive Body. New York, NY, Routledge.
112. Ussher JM, Perz J, May E (2014) Pathology or source of power? The construction and experience of premenstrual syndrome within two contrasting cases. Fem Psychol, 24:332-351.
113. van Andel T, de Korte S, Koopmans D, Behari-Ramdas J, Ruysschaert S (2008) Dry sex in Suriname. J Ethnopharmacol, 116:84-88.
114. Wister JA, Stubbs ML, Shipman C. (2013) Mentioning menstruation: A stereotype threat that diminishes cognition? Sex Roles, 68:19-31.
115. Women in Sport (2022) Reframing sport for teenage girls: Tackling teenage disengagement. https://www.womeninsport.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/TacklingTeenage-Disengagement-March-2022.pdf (Accessed 25.11.2024).
116. Wong A, Oxlad M, Turnbull D (2025) Exploring Australian women's attitudes towards paid menstrual leave: A mixed-methods study. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol, 65:766-777.
117. Wong WC, Li MK, Chan WYV, Choi YY, Fong CH, Lam KWK (2013) A cross-sectional study of the beliefs and attitudes towards menstruation of Chinese undergraduate males and females in Hong Kong. J Clin Nurs, 22:3320-3327.
118. World Health Organization (1981) A cross-cultural study of menstruation: Implications for contraceptive development and use. Stud Fam Plann, 12:3-16.
119. Yılmazbilek M (2022) Toplumsal inşa alanı olarak menstrüasyon: kadınların deneyimlerindeki baskı ve mücadelenin çözümlenmesi. Fe Dergi, 14:1-16.
120. Zablock K, Fei YF (2023) Young men's attitudes and understanding of menstruation. J Adolesc Health, 74:782-786.
121. Zita, JN (1988) The premenstrual syndrome: “Dis-easing” the female cycle. Hypatia, 3,77-99.