Post-stroke Neuropsychiatric Problems

Abstract

Stroke is the most frequent and significant reason of disability in society. The underlying basic pathophysiological mechanisms of stroke are infarct and hemorrhage. A total of 20% patients that had a stroke became dependent. Dementia, depression, anxiety disorder, mania, psychosis, pathological emotions, apathy and catastrophic reactions constitute challenging clinical presentations that occur after stroke. In this review, current data about epidemiology, etiology, clinic and treatment of psychopathologies that occur in poststroke period will be discussed.

Keywords

• Stroke,clinical presentation,treatment,neuropsychiatry

İnme Sonrası Nöropsikiyatrik Sorunlar

Öz

İnme toplumdaki en sık yeti yitimi nedeni olarak göze çarpan bir hastalıktır. İnmenin altında yatan temel patofizyolojik süreçler enfarkt ve hemorajidir. İnme geçiren hastaların %20’si orta düzeyde bağımlı hale gelmektedir. Demans, depresyon, anksiyete bozukluğu, mani, psikoz, patolojik emosyonlar, apati ve katastrofik reaksiyon, inme sonrasında klinisyenlerin karşılaştıkları zorlu psikiyatrik tabloları oluşturmaktadır. Bu derlemede, inme sonrası dönemde görülen psikopatolojilerin epidemiyoloji, etyoloji, klinik ve tedavileri konusunda güncel gelişmeler perspektifinde elde edilen veriler paylaşılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İnme,klinik görünüm,tedavi,nöropsikiyatri

Kaynakça

1. Adair JC, Charlie J, Dencoff JE, Kaye JA, Quinn JF, Camicioli R et al. (2004) Measurement of gelatinase B (MMP-9) in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with vascular dementia and Alzheimer disease. Stroke, 35:e159-e162.
2. Ahmed A, Simmons Z (2013) Pseudobulbar affect: prevalence and management. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, 9:483-489.
3. Almeida OP, Xiao J (2007) Mortality associated with incident mental health disorder after stroke. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 41(3):274-281.
4. Almeida J, Serrao EM,Almeida AT, Afonso JG (2011) Effective Treatment With Clozapine and Valproate for RefractorySchizophrenia-Like Psychosis After Cerebellar Hemorrhage. Clin Neuropharmacol, 34(3):131-132.
5. An SJ, Kim TJ, Yoon BW (2017) Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Features of Intracerebral Hemorrhage: An Update. J Stroke, 19(1):3-10.
6. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Riis JO (1993) Citalopram for post-stroke pathological crying. Lancet, 342(8875):837-839.
7. Andersen G, Vestergoard K (1994) Incidence of poststroke depression during the first year in a large unselected stroke population determined using a valid standardize rating scala. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 90:190-195.
8. Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Lauritzen L (1994a) Effective treatment of poststroke depression with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram. Stroke, 25:1099-1104.

9. Andersen G, Ingeman-Nielsen M, Vestergaard K, Riis JO (1994b) Pathoanatomic correlation between poststroke pathological crying and damage to brain areas involved in serotonergic neurotransmission. Stroke, 25(5): 1050-1052.
10. Aström M, Adolfsson R, Asplund K (1993a) Major depression in stroke patients. A three-year longitudinal study. Stroke, 24:976-982.
11. Aström M, Olsson T, Asplund K (1993b) Different linkage of depression to hypercortisolism early versus late after stroke: A 3-year longitudinal study. Stroke, 24(1):52-57.
12. Bamford J, Sandercock P, Dennis M, Warlow C, Jones L, McPherson K et al. (1988) A prospective study of acute cerebrovascular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project 1981-86. 1. Methodology, demography and incident cases of first ever stroke. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 51:1373-1380.
13. Bamford J, Sandercock P, Dennis M, Burn J, Warlow C (1990) A prospective study of acute cerebrovascular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project--1981-86. 2. Incidence, case fatality rates and overall outcome at one year of cerebral infarction, primary intracerebral and subarachnoid haemorrhage. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 53:16-22.
14. Barba R, Martinez-Espinosa S, Rodriguez-Garcia E, Pondal M, Vivancos J, Del Ser T (2000) Poststroke dementia clinical features and risk factors. Stroke, 31:1494-1501.
15. Barboza RB, De Freitas GR, Tovar-Moll F, Fontenelle LF (2013) Delayedonset post-stroke delusional disorder: a case report. Behav Neurol, 27:287-291.
16. Battistin L, Cagnin A (2010) Vascular cognitive disorder. A biological and clinical overview. Neurochem Res, 35:1933-1938.
17. Benson DF, Cummings JL (1982) Angular gyrus syndrome simulatind Alzheimer’s disease. Arch Neurol, 39(10):616-620.
18. Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (2008) Neurology in Clinical Practice (Çeviri Ed. Ersin Tan, Sevim Erdem Özdamar). Ankara, Kalkan Matbaacılık.
19. Brodaty H, Sachdev PS, Withall A, Altendorf A, Valenzuela MJ, Lorentz L. (2005) Frequency and clinical, neuropsychological and neuroimaging correlates of apathy following stroke – the Sydney Stroke Study. Psychological Medicine 35(12):1707-1716.
20. Brooks JO, Hoblyn JC (2005) Secondary mania in older adults. Am J Psychiatry, 162:2033-2038.
21. Broomfield NM, Scoular A, Welsh P, Walters M, EvansJJ (2015) Poststroke anxiety is prevalent at the population level, especially among socially deprived and younger age community stroke survivors. International Journal of Stroke, 10:897-902.
22. Brown KW, Sloan RL, Pentland B (1998) Fluoxetine as a treatment for post-stroke emotionalism. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 98(6):455-455.
23. Burns A, Russell E, Stratton-Powell H, Tyrell P, O’Neill P, Baldwin R (1999) Sertraline in stroke-associated lability of mood. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry, 14(8):681-685.
24. Burvill PW, Johnson GA, Jamrozik KD, Anderson CS, Stewart-Wynne EG, Chakera TM (1995) Prevalence of depression after stroke: the Perth Community stroke study. Br J Psychiatry, 166(3):320-327.
25. Caeiro L, Ferro JM, Santos CO, Figueira ML (2006) Depression in acute stroke. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 31(6):377-383.
26. Caso JR, Lizasoain I, Lorenzo P, Moro MA, Leza JC (2006) The role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in stress-induced worsening of cerebral ischemia in rats, Neuroscience, 142(1):59-69.
27. Castillo CS, Starkestein SE, Federoff JP (1993) Generalized anxiety disorder after stroke. J Nerv Ment Dis, 181:100-106.
28. Chen Y, Guo JJ, Zhan S, Patel NC (2006) Treatment effects of antidepressants in patients with post-stroke depression: a metaanalysis. Ann Pharmacother, 40:2115-2122.
29. Chun HYY, Carson AJ, Dennis MS, Mead GE, Whiteley WN (2018a) Treating anxiety after stroke: the feasibility phase of a navel web-enabled randomised controlled trial. Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 4:139. doi.org/10.1186/s40814-018-0329-x.
30. Chun HYY, Whiteley WN, Dennis MS, Mead GE, Carson AJ (2018b) Anxiety after stroke The importance of subtyping. Stroke, 49(3):556-564.
31. Cordonnier C, Henon H, Derambure P, Pasquier F, Leys D (2005) Influence of pre-existing dementia on the risk of post-stroke epileptic seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 76(12):1649-1653.
32. Corlett PR, Murray GK, Honey GD, Aitken MR, Shanks DR, Robbins TW et al. (2007) Disrupted prediction-error signal in psychosis: evidence for an associative account of delusions. Brain, 130:2387–2400.
33. Cullen B, O’Neill B, Evans JJ, Coen RF, Lawlor BA (2007) A review of screening tests for cognitive impairment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 78(8):790-799.
34. Cummings JL, Miller B, Hill MA, Neshkes R (1987) Neuropsychometric aspects of multi-infarct dementia and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Arch Neurol, 44:389-393.
35. Das A, Khanna R (1993) Organic manic syndrome causative factors, phenomenology and immediate outcome. J Affect Disord, 27:147-53.
36. Davenport R, Dennis M (2000) Neurological emergencies: acute stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 68:277-288.
37. David D, Fleminger S, Kopelman M, Lovestone S, Mellers J (2013) Lishman Organik Psikiyatri (Çeviri Ed. A. Elif Anıl Yağcıoğlu). Ankara, Sözkesen Matbaacılık.
38. Derex L, Ostrowsky K, Nighoghossian N, Trouillas P (1997) Severe pathological crying after left anterior choroidal artery infarct: reversibility with paroxetine treatment. Stroke, 28(7): 1464-1466.
39. Desmond DW, Moroney JT, Paik MC, Sano M, Mohr JP, Aboumatar S et al. (2000) Frequency and clinical determinants of dementia after ischemic stroke. Neurology, 54:1124-1131.
40. Devine MJ, Bentley P, Jones B, Hotton G, Greenwood RJ, Jenkins IH et al. (2014) The role of the right inferior frontal gyrus in the patoghenesis of post-stroke psychosis. J Neurol, 261:600-603.
41. Dilbaz N (2001) Akut inme sonrası gelişen patofizyolojik ve nöropsikiyatrik sonuçlar. Klinik Psikiyatri, 4:166-174.
42. Dilbaz N, Oğuztürk Ö, Kılıç N, Okyay Y, Çakçı A (1994) Spinal kord yaralanması sonrası bası yarası alan hastalarda depresyon ve kaygı. Romatoloji ve Tıbbi Rehabilitasyon Dergisi, 5(3):182-186.
43. Dufy JD, Kant R (1997) Apathy secondary to neurologic disease. Psychiatric Annals, 27(1):39-43.
44. Duggal HS (2005) Cognitive affective psychosis syndrome in a patient with sporadic olivopontocerebellar atrophy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 17(2):260-262.
45. Edwards-Lee T, Cummings JL (2000) Focal Lesions and psychosis. Bogousslavsky J & Cummings JL (Ed), Behavior and mood disorders in focal brain lesions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2000, 419-437.
46. Eisch AJ, Petrik D (2012) Depression and hippocampal neurogenesis: a road to remission? Science, 338(6103): 72–75.
47. Evans DL (2000) Bipolar disorder: diagnostic challenges and treatment considerations. J Clin Psychiatry, 61:26-31.
48. Evans DL, Byerly MJ, Greer RA (1995) Secondary mania: diagnosis and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry, 56(Suppl3):31-37.
49. Eyre H, Baune BT (2012) Neuroplastic changes in depression: a role for the immune system. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(9):1397–1416.
50. Fan T, Jiang WL, Zhu J, Zhang YF (2012) Arctigenin protects focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion rats through inhibiting neuroinflammation, Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 35(11):2004–2009.
51. Feinstein A, Feinstein K, Gray T, O’Connor P (1997) Prevalence of neurobehavioral correlates of pathological laughing and crying in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neuro, 54(9): 1116-1121.
52. Feng C, Fang M, Liu XY (2014) The neurobiological pathogenesis of poststroke depression. The Scientific World Journal, vol.2014 article ID 521349, 8 pages. dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/521349
53. Ferreira MC, Machado C, Santos B, Machado A (2017) Post-stroke psychosis: how long should we treat? Trends Psychiatry Psychother, 39(2):144-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2015-0090.
54. Gainotti G (1972) Emotional behaviour and hemispheric side of lesion. Cortex, 8:41-55.
55. Gainotti G, Antonucci G, Marra C, Paolucci S (2001) Relation between depression after stroke, antidepressant therapy, and functional recovery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 71(2):258-261.
56. Gao H, Zhu H, Zhang Y, Wang L (2008) Reduction of cerebrospinal fluid and plasma serotonin in patients with poststroke depression: a preliminary report. Clinical and Investigative Medicine, 31(6):E351-E356.
57. Gilworth G, Phil M, Cert A, Sansam KA, Kent RM (2009) Personal experiences of returning to work following stroke: an exploratory study. Work, 34:95-103.
58. Goldstein K (1948) Language and Language Disturbances. New York: Grune & Stratton.
59. Grysiewicz R, Gorelick PB (2012) Key neuroanatomical structures for post-stroke cognitive impairment. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 12(6):703-708.
60. Hackett ML, Andeson CS (2005) Predictors of depression after stroke:a systematic review of observational studies. Stroke, 36:2296-2301.
61. Havle N, Altunkaynak Y, Dayan C, İlnem MC, Arpacı B (2010) İnme sonrası depresyon tedavisinde essitalopram. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni, 20:74-78.
62. Hemphill JC, Bonovich DC, Besmertis L, Manley GT, Johnston SC (2001) The ICH score: a simple, reliable grading scale for intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke, 32:891-897.
63. Hiemke C, Hartter S (2000) Pharmacokinetics of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Pharmacol Ther, 85:11-28.
64. House A, Dennis M, Mogridge L, Hawton K, Warlow C (1990) Life events and difficulties preceding stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 53:1024-1028.
65. Hurwitz LJ, Adams GF (1972) Rehabilitation of hemiplegia: indices of assessment and prognosis. BMJ, 1:94-98.
66. Iadecola C, Anrather J (2011) The immunology of stroke: from mechanisms to translation. Nat Med, 17(7):796-808.
67. Jacquin A, Binquet C, Rouaud O, Graule-Petot A, Daubail B, Osseby GV et al. (2014) Post-Stroke Cognitive Impairment: High Prevalence and Determining Factors in a Cohort of Mild Stroke. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 40(4):1029-1038.
68. Jorge RE, Starkstein SE, Robinson RE (2010) Apathy following stroke. Can J Psychiatry, 55(6):350-354.
69. Keep RF, Hua Y, Xi G (2012) Intracerebral haemorrhage: mechanisms of injury and therapeutic targets. Lancet Neurol, 11:720-731.
70. Kim SW, Shin IS, KimJM, Lim SY, Yang SJ, Yoon SJ (2005) Clin Neurpharmacol, 28(5):249-251.
71. Klimkowicz MA, Dziedzic T, Slowik A, Szczudlik A (2006) Predictors of poststroke dementia: Results of a hospital-based study in Poland. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 21:328-334.
72. Kliper E, Bashat DB, Bornstein NM, Shenhar-Tsarfaty S, Hallevi H, Auriel E et al. (2013) Cognitive decline after stroke: relation to inflammatory biomarkers and hippocampal volume. Stroke, 44:1433-1435.
73. Knapp P, Campbell Burton CA, Holmes J, Murray J, Gillespie D, Lightbody CE et al. (2017) Interventions for treating anxiety after stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 5. Art. No.: CD008860.DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008860.pub3.
74. Krauthammer C, Klerman GL (1978) Secondary mania: Manic syndromes associated with antecedent physical illness or drugs. Arc of Gen Physch, 35:1333-1339.
75. Kumral E, Evyapan D, Balkır K, Kutluhan S (2001) Bilateral thalamic infarction. Acta Neurol Scand, 103(1):35-42.
76. Kumral E, Oztürk O (2004) Delusional state following acute stroke. Neurology, 62:110-113.
77. Levine DN, Finklestein S (1982) Delayed psychosis after right temporoparietal stroke or trauma: relation to epilepsy. Baillieres Clin Neurol, 32:267-273.
78. Leys D, Henon H, Mackowiak-Cordoliani MA, Pasquier F (2005) Poststroke dementia. Lancet Neurol, 4(11):752-759.
79. Lincoln NB, Brinkmann N, Cunningham S, Dejaeger E, De Weerdt W, Jenni W, et al. (2013) Anxiety and depression after stroke: a 5 year follow-up. Disabil Rehabil, 35:140-145.
80. Linscott RJ, van Os J (2010) Systematic reviews of categorical versus continuum models in psychosis: evidence for discontinuous subpopulations underlying a psychometric continuum. Implications for DSM-V, DSM-VI, and DSM-VII. Annu Rev Clin Psychol, 6:391-419.
81. Liu CY, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Yang YY, Liu HC (1996) Bipolar disorder following a stroke involving the left hemisphere. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 5:688-691.
82. Loubinoux I, Kronenberg G, Endres M, Schumann-Bard P, Freret T, FilipkowskiRK et al. (2012) Post-stroke depression: mechanisms, translation and therapy. J Cell Mol Med, 16(9):1961–1969.
83. Marin RS (1991) Apathy: a neuropsychiatric syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 3:243-254.
84. McGilchrist I, Goldstein LH, Jadresic D, Fenwick P (1993) Thalamo-frontal psychosis: a case report. Br J Psychiatry, 163:113-115.
85. Mead GE, Hsieh CF, Hackett M (2013) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for stroke recovery. JAMA, 310(10):1066-1067.
86. Mehrabian S, Raycheva M, Petrova N, Janyan A, Petrova M, Traykov L (2015) Neuropsychological and neuroimaging markers in prediction of cognitive impairment after ischemic stroke: a prospective follow-up study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 11:2711-2719.
87. Mijajlovic MD, Pavlovic A, Brainin M, Heiss WD, Quinn TJ, Ihle-Hansen HB et al. (2017) Post-stroke dementia - a comprehensive review. BMC Medicine, 15:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-017-0779-7
88. Mikami K, Jorge RE, Moser DJ, Arndt S, Jang M, Solodkin A, et al. (2014) Prevention of post-stroke generalized anxiety disorder, using escitalopram or problem-solving therapy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 26(4):323-328.
89. Mishra NK, Haschak S (2008) Poststroke hallucination delusion syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 20:116.
90. Morris PL, Robinson RG, Andrezejwski P (1993) Association of depression with 10 year post stroke mortality. Am J Psychiatry, 150:124-129.
91. Narasimhalu K, Lee J, Leong YL, Ma L, De Silva DA, Wong MC et al. (2015) Inflammatory markers and their association with post stroke cognitive decline. Int J Stroke, 10(4):513-518.
92. Narushima K, Kosier JT, Robinson RG (2003) A reappraisal of post-stroke depression, intra and interhemispheric lesion location using meta-analysis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 15(4):422-430.
93. Nys GMS, van Zandvoort MJE, van derWorp HB, deHaan EHF, de Kort PLM, Kappelle LJ (2005) Early depressive symptoms after stroke: neuropsychological correlates and lesion characteristics. J Neurol Sci, 228(1):27-33.
94. Paradiso S, Robinson RG (1998) Gender differences in poststroke depression. J Neuropsyc Clin Neurosci, 10:41-47.
95. Parvizi J, Coburn KL, Shillcutt SD, Coffey CE, Lauterbach EC, Mendez MF (2009) Neuroanatomy of pathological laughing and crying: a report of the American Neuropsychiatric Association Committee on Research. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 21(1):75-87.
96. Pasquier F, Henon H, Leys D (1999) Risk factors and mechanisms of post-stroke dementia. Rev Neurol, 155(9):749-753.
97. Pendlebury ST, Rothwell PM (2009) Prevalence, incidence, and factors associated with pre-stroke and post-stroke dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol, 8:1006-1018.)
98. Petracca GM, Jorge RE, Ación L, Weintraub D, Robinson RG (2009) Frequency and correlates of involuntary emotional expression disorder in Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 21(4):406-412.
99. Pioro EP, Brooks BR, Cummings J, Schiffer R, Thisted RA, Wynn D et al. (2010) Dextromethorphan plus ultra low-dose quinidine reduces pseudobulbar affect. Ann Neurol, 68(5):693-702.
100. Pohjasvaara T, Leppavuori A, Siira I, Vataja R, Kaste M, Erkinjutti T (1998) Frequency and clinical determinants of poststroke dementia. Stroke, 29:2311-2317.PROGRESS Collaborative Group (2001) Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6,105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet, 358(9287):1033-1041.
101. Quaranta D, Marra C, Gainotti G (2012) Post-stroke depression: main phenomenological clusters and their relationships with clinical measures. Behavioural Neurology, 25(4):303–310.
102. Rabins PV, Starkstein SE, Robinson RG (1991) Risk factors for developing atypical (schizophreniform) psychosis following stroke. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 3:6-9.
103. Rafsten L, Danielsson A, Sunnerhagen KS (2018) Anxiety after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Rehabil Med, 50:769-778.
104. Ramasubbu R (2003) Lamotrigine Treatment for Post-Stroke Pathological Laughing and Crying. Clin Neuropharmacol, 26(5):233-235.
105. Rao V, Bergey A, Rosenberg P (2012) Sertraline for treatment of post-stroke anxiety. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 24(2):E22. doi: 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11060134.
106. Reekum RV, Stuss DT, Ostrander L (2005) Apathy: Why care? J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 17(1):7-19.
107. Robinson RG, Boston JD, Starkstein S, Price TR (1988) Comparison of mania and depression after brain injury: causal factors. Am J Psychiatry, 145:172-178.
108. Robinson RG, Starkstein SE (1990) Current research in affective disorders following stroke. J Neuropsych Clin Neurosci, 2:1-14.
109. Robinson RG, Parikh RM, Lipsey JR, Starkstein SE, Price TR (1993) Pathological laughing and crying following stroke: validation of a measurement scale and a double-blind treatment study. Am J Psychiatry, 150(2):286-293.
110. Robinson GR (1998) Pathological laughing and crying. In: The Clinical Neuropsychiatry of Stroke. (Ed Robinson GR):455-471. Cambridge, University Press.
111. Robinson RG, Schultz SK, Castillo C, Kopel T, Kosier JT, Newman RM et al. (2000) Nortriptyline versus fluoxetine in the treatment of depression and in short-term recovery after stroke: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry, 157:351-359.
112. Robinson RG, Jorge RE, Clarence-Smith K (2008) Double-blind randomized treatment of poststroke depression using nefiracetam. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 20(2):178-184.
113. Rocha S, Pinho J, Ferreira C, Machado A (2014) Othello syndrome after cerebrovascular infarction. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 26:3.Royal College of Physicians 2005 Use of antidepressant medication in adults undergoing recovery and rehabilitation following acquired brain injury. Clinical effectiveness and evaluation unit. Royal College of Physicians, British Society of Rehabilitation Medicine, and British GeriatricsSociety. Concise guidiance toGood Practice4. Royal college of Phsycians, London.
114. Ryvlin P, Montavont A, Nighoghossian N. (2006) Optimizing therapy of seizures in stroke patients. Neurology, 67(12 suppl 4):S3-S9.
115. Sacco S, Marini C, Toni D, Olivieri L, Carolei A (2009) Incidence and 10-year survival of intracerebral hemorrhage in a population based registry. Stroke, 40:394-399.
116. Sadock BJ, Sadock VA (2007) Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry Sekizinci Baskı (Çeviri Ed. Hamdullah Aydın, Ali Bozkurt).Ankara, Öncü Basımevi.
117. Santos CO, Caeiro L, Ferro JM, Fiqueira ML (2011) Mania and stroke: a systematic review. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2011;32:11-21.
118. Schiffer RB, Herndon RM, Rudick RA (1985) Ttreatmant of pathologic laughing and weeping with amitriptiline. N Engl J Med, 312:1480-1482.
119. Shimoda K, Robinson RG (1998) Effect of anxiety disorder on impair-ment and recovery from stroke. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 10:34-40.
120. Shimoda K, Robinson RG (1999) The relationship between poststroke depression and lesion location in long-term follow-up. Biological Psychiatry, 45:187-192.
121. Skoog I (2000) Risk factors for dementia after stroke. Fifth Annual Advances in stroke symposium. Proceedings Highlights. Bermuda, 27-28.
122. Song YM, Sung J, Lawlor DA, Smith GD, Shin Y, Ebrahim S (2004) Blood pressure, haemorrhagic stroke, and ischaemic stroke: the Korean national prospective occupational cohort study. BMJ, 328:324-325.
123. Spalletta G, Caltagirone C (2003) Sertraline treatment of post stroke major depression: an open study in patients moderate to severe symptoms. Funct Neurol, 18(4):227-232.
124. Spalletta G, Ripa A, Caltagirone C (2005) Symptom profile of DSM-IV major and minor depressive disorders in first-ever stroke patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, (13)2:108-115.
125. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG, Price TR (1987) Comparison ofcortical and subcortical lesions in the production of poststroke mood disorders. Brain, 110(Pt 4):1045-1059.
126. Starkstein SE, RobinsonRG, Berthier ML, Parikh RM, Price TR (1988) Differential mood changes following basal ganglia versus thalamic lesions. Arch Neurol, 45(7):725-730.
127. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG, Berthier ML (1992) Post-stroke hallucinatory delusional syndromes. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol, 5:114-118.
128. Starkstein SE, Fedoroff JP, Price TR, Leiguarda R, Robinson RG (1993a) Apathy following cerebrovascular lesions. Stroke, 24(11):1625-1630.
129. Starkstein SE, Fedoroff JP, Price TR, Leiguarda R, Robinson RG (1993b) Catastrophic reaction after cerebrovascular lesions: frequency, correlates, and validation of a scale. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 5(2):189-194.
130. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG (1997) Mechanism of disinhibition after brain lesions. J Nerv Ment Dis, 185:108-114.
131. Starkstein SE, Robinson RG (2000) Stroke, Textbook of Geriatric Neuropsychiatry. CE Coffey, JL Cummings (Ed), Washington APP, s.601-620.
132. Tang WK, Chan SSM, Chiu HFK, Ungvari GS, Wong KS, Kwok TCY et al. (2004) Frequency and Determinants of Poststroke Dementia in Chinese. Stroke, 35:930-935.
133. Tang WK, Lu JY, Chen YK, Chu WCW, Mok V, Ungvari GS et al. (2011) Association of frontal subcortical circuits infarcts in poststroke depression: a magnetic resonance imaging study of 591 Chinese patients with ischemic stroke. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol, 24(1):44-49.
134. Tang WK, Lau CG, Mok V, Ungvari GS, Wong K-S (2013) Impact of anxiety on health-related quality of life after stroke: across-sectional study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 94:2535-2541.
135. Tatemichi TK, Desmond DW, Mayeux R, Paik M, Stern Y, Sano M et al. (1992) Dementia after stroke: baseline frequency, risks, and clinical features in a hospitalized cohort. Neurology, 42(6):1185-1193.
136. Tateno A, Kimura M, Robinson RG (2002) Phenomenological charecteristics of poststroke depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 10:575-582.
137. Tateno A, Jorge RE, Robinson RG (2004) Pathological laughing and crying following traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 16(4):426-434.
138. Thom T, Haase N, Rosamond W, Howard VJ, Rumsfeld J, Manolio T et al. (2006) Heart disease and stroke statistics—2006 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation, 113(6): e85-151.
139. Tohen M, Castillo J, Pope HG Jr, Herbstein J (1994) Concomitant use of valproate and carbamazepine in bipolar and schizoaffective disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 14(1):67-70.
140. Turecki G, Mari JJ, Del Porto JA (1993) Bipolar disorder following a left basal ganglia stroke. Br J Psychiatry, 163:690-701.
141. Van Rijswijk E, Van Hout H, Van de Lisdonk E, Zitman F, Van Weel C (2009) Barriers in recognising, diagnosing and managing depressive and anxiety disorders as experienced by family physicians; a focus group study. BMC Family Practice, 10(52):1-7.
142. Vataja R, Leppavuori A, Pohjasvaara T, Mantyla R, Aronen HJ, Salonen O et al. (2004) Poststroke depression and lesion location revisited. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 16(2):156-162.
143. Wallin A, Ohrfelt A, Bjerke M (2012) Characteristic clinical presentation and CSF biomarker pattern in cerebral small vessel disease. J Neurol Sci, 322(1-2):192-196.
144. Wang S, Zhang Z, Guo Y, Teng G, Chen B (2008) Hippocampal neurogenesis and behavioural studies on adult ischemic rat response to chronic mild stress. Behav Brain Res, 189(1):9-16.
145. Watanabe Y (2005) Fear of falling among stroke survivors after discharge from inpatient rehabilitation. Int J Rehabil Res, 28:149-152.
146. Whyte EM, Lenze EJ, Butters M, Skidmore E, Koenig K, Dew MA et al. (2008) An Open-Label Pilot Study of Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors to Promote Functional Recovery in Elderly Cognitively Impaired Stroke Patients. Cerebrovasc Dis, 26:317-321.
147. Wilkinson PR, Wolfe CD, Warburton FG, Rudd AG, Howard RS, Ross-Russell RW et al. (1997) A long-term folluw-up of stroke patients. Stroke, 28(3):507-512.
148. Williams LS, Ghose SS, Swindle RW (2004) Depression and other mental health diagnoses increase mortality risk after ischemic stroke. Am J Psychiatry, 161:1090-1095.
149. Wolfe CD (2000) The impact of stroke. Br Med Bull, 56(2):275-286.
150. Yang L, Zhang Z, Sun D, Xu Z, Yuan Y, Zhang X et al. (2011) Low serum BDNF may indicate the development of PSD in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 26(5): 495–502.
151. Zhou DH, Wang JY, Li J, Deng J, Gao C, Chen M (2004) Study on frequency and predictors of dementia after ischemic stroke: the Chongqing stroke study. J Neurol, 251:421-427.
152. Zhou Z, Lu T, Xu G, Yue X, Zhu W, Ma M et al. (2011) Decreased serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is associated with post-stroke depression but not with BDNF gene Val66Met polymorphism. Clin Chem Lab Med, 49(2):185-189.
153. Zifko UA, Rupp M, Schwarz S (2002) Sertraline in the treatment of post stroke depression- results of an open multicenter study. Wien Med Wochenschr, 17(3):211-214.