Antik Çağda ‘Yapı ile Zemin Arasındaki Bağı Gevşetme’ Düşüncesi ve Antisismik Temellere Arkeolojik Kanıtlar

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 4, 199 - 242, 30.09.2024

Davut Kaplan

https://doi.org/10.56170/propontica.1464273

Öz

Antik çağda antisismik yapıların varlığı, yazılı kaynaklarda ifade edilmese de, arazide çalışanlar tarafından çoğu kez gözden kaçırılmakta veya tartışma konusu yapılmaktadır. En azından günümüz beton yapıları öncesi Anadolu’da ve çevre bölgelerde sürgün vermiş kadim kültürlerdeki bazı geleneksel yapıların ve yapı tekniklerinin antisismik olduğu kabul edilmelidir. Hatta bu teknikler, bazen geniş bir coğrafyada bazen de daha dar bir bölgede, sanki bir merkezi yönetim, idare veya düşüncenin kontrolü altında uygulanmış gibidir ve uzun süre kullanılmaya devam eder. Arkeolojik çalışmalar, dinamik yüklerden etkilenen yapıların desteklenmesi amacıyla bazı inşa tekniklerinin yaygın olarak kullanıldığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bu tür teknikler, depremlerin yapılar üzerindeki etkilerini kesinlikle farkında olan ve bilen mühendis, mimar ve ustalar tarafından uygulanmış ve geliştirilmiştir. Dolayısıyla antisismik yapılar, deprem tehlikesinin bilincinde olan bir düşüncenin sonucu ortaya çıkmış olmalıdır. Bronz Çağlar’ında Anadolu’da temeller ve duvarlarda ahşap, Mezopotamya ve Mısır’da kum, Yunan mimarisinde kum, kül, kömür ve kireç, Roma’da opus caementicum, daha dayanıklı veya uzun ömürlü yapı inşaat tekniklerinin temel ve temel altındaki uygulamalarıdır. Elbette ki ahşap ve ahşabın yer verildiği temeller Bronz Çağı’ndan beri bilinmekte ve kullanılmaktadır. Ne yazık ki yeni malzemelerin ve teknolojilerin ortaya çıkmasıyla Anadolu’nun geleneksel mimari anlayışı neredeyse tamamen inşaat pratiğinden çıkarılmıştır. Modern inşaatlarda olduğu gibi arkeolojik çalışmalarda da yapıların, göze gelen temel üstü birimlerine dikkat edilirken, toprak altında kalan temel bölümlerine dikkat edilmemektedir. Alt yapıda ahşap kullanıldığına dair bilgiler ise bazen rastlantı sonucu keşfedilmiştir. Bu makale antik çağda yapı ile zemin arasındaki bağı gevşetme düşüncesinin bilindiğini göstermektedir. Geçmişte kullanılan teknik çözümler, taban yalıtımı ilkelerine uysa da, bugünkü gibi gerçek anlamda antisismik düşünceye sahip oldukları ise tartışılabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Antik Çağ, Bina Temelleri, Sismik Temeller, Yapı ve Zemin, Deprem

The Idea of ‘Loosening the Bond Between Ground and Structure’ in Antiquity and Archaeological Evidence on Antiseismic Foundations

Öz

Antiseismic structures in antiquity are often overlooked or disputed by those working in the field, even though they are not mentioned in written sources. At the very least, it should be recognized that some of the traditional structures and building techniques of ancient cultures in Anatolia and surrounding regions were antiseismic before today’s concrete structures. In fact, these techniques were sometimes applied over a wide geographical area and sometimes in a narrower region, as if under the control of a central government, administration or idea, and continue to be used for a long time. Archaeological studies reveal that some construction methods were widely used to support structures affected by dynamic loads. Such methods were applied and developed by engineers, architects and artisans who were fully aware of the effects of earthquakes on structures. Therefore, antiseismic structures must have emerged due to awareness of earthquake hazards. Wood in foundations and walls in Anatolia in the Bronze Ages, sand in Mesopotamia and Egypt, sand, ash, coal and lime in Greek architecture, and opus caementicum in Rome were applied in and under the foundation in more durable or long-lasting building construction techniques. Undoubtedly, wood and wood foundations have been known and used since the Bronze Age. Unfortunately, with the emergence of new materials and technologies, the traditional architectural understanding of Anatolia was almost wholly removed from construction practice. As in modern constructions, in archaeological studies, attention is paid to the structures’ above- ground units, while the underground foundation sections are overlooked. Data about the use of wood in the groundwork is sometimes discovered by chance. This article demonstrates that the idea of loosening the bond between structure and ground was known in ancient times. Although the technical solutions used in the past match the principles of base insulation, it is arguable whether they are genuinely antiseismic as they are today.

Anahtar Kelimeler

antiquity, building foundations, antiseismic foundations, structure and ground, earthquake

Kaynakça

• Abdessamed-Foufa-Benouar 2010, Abdessemed-Foufa, N.-Benouar, D., “Investigation of the 1716 Algiers (Algeria) Earthquake from Historical Sources: Effect, Damages, and Vulnerability”, International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 4, 3, 270-293.
• Adam 1977, Adam, J. P., “A propos du trilithon de Baalbek. Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes”, Syria 54.1-2, 31-63.
• Adam 1994, Adam, J. P., Roman Building, Materials and Techniques, London.
• Ambos 2004, Ambos, C., Mesopotamische Baurituale aus dem 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr., Dresden.
• Ambos 2013, Ambos, C., “Mesopotamische Baurituale aus dem 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Nachträge und Verbesserungen”, Approaching Rituals in Ancient Cultures (Eds. C. Ambos-L. Verderame), Dresden, 17-37.
• Bammer-Muss 1996, Bammer, A.-Muss, U., Das Artemision von Ephesos, Mainz am Rhein. Bammer 1984, Bammer, A., Das Heiligtum der Artemis von Ephesos, Graz.
• Barbat-Bozzo 1997, A. H. Barbat-L. M. Bozzo, “Seismic Analysis of Base Isolated Buildings”, Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 4, 153-192.
• Bayraktar et al. 2012, Bayraktar, A.-Keypour, H.-Naderzadeh, A. “Application of Ancient Earthquake Resistant Method in Modern Construction Technology”, 15. WCEE, Lisboa, 1-9.
• Beek 1996, Beek, Gus W. Van, “Ancient Methods for Minimizing Earthquake Damage at Tell Jemmeh”, Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies, 1-8.
• Ben-Menahem 1995, Ben-Menahem, A., “Review, A Concise History of Mainstream Seismology: Origins, Legacy, and Perspectives”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 85, 4, 1202-1225.
• Bennett 2019, Bennett, J. E., “A Ptolemaic-Roman Temple Foundation at Tell Timai”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 105, 2, 217-226.
• Blegen et al. 1953, Blegen, C. W.-Caskey, J. L.-Rawson, M., Troy: Excavations conducted by the University of Cincinnati 1932–1938, Vol. III-The Sixth Settlement, Princeton.
• Boardman 2000, Boardman, J., Persia and the West, An Archaeological Investigation of the Genesis of Achaemenid Art, London.
• Butler 1925, Butler, H. C., Sardis. Vol. 2, Architecture, Part 1: The Temple of Artemis, Leiden.
• Carpani 2014, Carpani, B., “A Survey of Ancient Geotechnical Engineering Techniques in Subfoundation Preparation”, SAHC 2014, International Conference on Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions (eds. F. Peña-M. Chávez), Mexico City, 1-14.
• Carpani 2017, Carpani, B., “Base Isolation from a historical perspective”, Proceedings of 16th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering (16WCEE, IAEE & ACHISINA), Santiago, Chile.
• Catalano et al 2001, Catalano, P.-Arrighetti, B.-Benedettino, L.-Caldarini, C. Colonnelli, G.-Bernardini, M. Di S.-di Gianantonio, D.-Galani, L. Maffei, L.-Nencioni, W.-Pantano, S.-Minozzi, “Vivere e morire a Roma,” Römische Mitteilungen, 108, 355– 363.
• Clarke-Engelbach 1990, Clarke, S.-Engelbach, G., Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture, New York.
• Cooper 1996, Cooper, F. A., The Temple of Apollo Bassitas, Volume I, Princeton. Delougaz 1940, Delougaz, P., The Temple Oval at Khafajah, Chicago.
• Dinsmoor 1922, W. B. Dinsmoor, “Structural iron in Greek architecture”, AJA 24, 148-158. Doudoumis et al 2002, Doudoumis, I. N.-Papadopoulos, P.-Papaliangas, T., “A low-cost base isolation system on artificial soil layers with low shearing resistance”, 12th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, London.
• Dörpfeld 1902, Dörpfeld, W., Troja und Ilion, Athen. Dyson 2010, Dyson, S., Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City, Baltimore.
• Ellis 1968, R. W. Ellis, Foundation Deposits in Ancient Mesopotamia, London. Evans 1928, A. Evans, The Palace of Minos, Volume II, London.
• Furtwängler 1984, Furtwängler, A. E., “Wer entwarf den grössten Tempel Griechenlands?” AM 99, 97-103.
• Giuffrè 1988, Giuffrè, A., Monumenti e terremoti, Multigrafica Editrice, Roma. Grant-Hazel 2002, Grant, M.-Hazel, J., Who’s Who in Classical Mythology, London.
• Gruben 1961, Gruben, G., “Beobachtungen zum Artemis-Tempel von Sardis”, AthMitt 76, 155-196.
• Hanfmann-Frazer 1975, Hanfmann, G. M. A.-Frazer, K. J., “The Temple of Artemis: New Soundings” A Survey of Sardis and the Major Monuments Outside the City Walls, Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 1 (eds. G.M.A. Hanfmann-J.C. Waldbaum), 74-87, London.
• Hansen 1980-1983, Hansen, D. P., “Lagaş”, RIA 6, 419-430.
• Heinrich-Seidl 1982, Heinrich, E.-Seidl, U., Die Tempel und Heiligtümer im alten Mesopotamien: Typologie, Morphologic und Geschichte, 2 vols. (Deutsches archäologisches Institut, Denkmäler antiker Architektur 14), Berlin, 324-325.
• Hnila 2021, Hnila, P., “Load-bearing horizontal timber framing in the Aegean Bronze Age architecture and its Anatolian parallels”, Vtere Felıx, Márıa Žıacı Svojej Profesorke, (Miroslava Daňová-Lucia Nováková, Eds.), Trnava, 37-64.
• Hogarth 1908, Hogarth, D. G., Excavation at Ephesus, The Archaic Artemisia, London.
• Hoseyni et al. 2022, Hoseyni, M.-Dabanlı, Ö.-Hejazi, M., “Comparison of the structural behaviour of monolithic and masonry obelisks: Oblelisk of Theodosius and Walled Obelisk in İstanbul”, Engineering Failure Analysis 142, 1-32.
• Hölscher 1941, Hölscher, U., The Mortuary Temple of Ramses III, Part I, The Excavations of Medinet Habu-Volume III, Chicago.
• Josephson 2005, Josephson, J. A., “The Use of Sand Box Foundations in Ancient Egypt”, Structure and Significance, Thuoghts on Ancient Egyptian Architecture (ed. P. Janosi), Wien, 401-406.
• Karakhanyan et al. 2010, Karakhanyan, A.-Avagyan, A.-Sourouzian, H., “Archaeoseismological studies at the temple of Amenhotep III, Luxor, Egypt”, Special Paper of the Geological Society of America 471, Ancient Earthquakes, 1-24.
• Karweise 1991, Karweise, S., “Herostratos. Versuch einer Ehrenrettung,” Erol Atalay Memorial (ed. H. Malay), İzmir, 87–95.
• Karweise 1995, Karweise, S., Groß ist die Artemis von Ephesos. Die Geschichte einer der großen Städte der Antike, Wien. Kienast 1991, Kienast, H. J., Fundamentieren in Schwierigem Gelände: fallstudien aus dem Heraion von Samos (eds. A. Hoffmann-E.L. Schwander), Bautechnik der Antike. Internationales Kolloquium 1990, Mainz.
• Kienast 1998, Kienast, H. J., Der Niedergang des Tempels des Theodoros, AM 113, 111-131. Kienast 2001, Kienast, H. J., “Samische Monumentalarchitektur—Ägyptischer Einfluss?”, BIETAK 2001, 35-39.
• Kirikov 1992, Kirikov, B., History of Earthquake Resistant Construction, Madrid.
• Knibbe 1998, Knibbe, D., Ephesus-ΕΦΕΣΟΣ. Geschichte einer bedeutenden antiken Stadt und Portrait einer modernen Großgrabung im 102, Jahr der Wiederkehr des Beginnes österreichischer Forschungen, Frankfurt.
• Kraft et al. 2007, Kraft, John C.-Brückner, H.-Kayan, İ.-Engelman, H., “The Geographies of Ancient Ephesus and the Artemision in Anatolia”, Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 22, 1, 121–149.
• Legrain 1900, Legrain, G., Rapports sur l’écroulement de onze colonnes dans la salle hypostyle du grand temple d’Amon à Karnak, le 3 octobre 1899, ASAE 1, 121-140.
• Lloyd-Mellaart 1956, Lloyd, S.-Mellaart, J., “Beycesultan Excavations: Second Preliminary Report”, AS VI, 101-136. Mainstone 1975, Mainstone, R. J., Developments in Structural Form, London.
• Marthari 1990, Marthari, M., “The Chronology of the last phases of occupation at Akrotiri in the light of the evidence from the West House pottery groups”, Thera and the Aegean World III (eds. D. Hardy –A. Renfrew), Vol. III, London, 57-70. Martin 1965, Martin, R., Manuel d’Architecture Grecque, I. Materiaux et Techniques, Paris.
• Mielke 2009, Mielke, D. P., “Alte Paradigmen und neue Erkenntnisse zur hethitischen Holz-Lehmziegel-Architektur”, Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien, BYZAS 9, 81-106.
• Milizia 1781, Milizia, F., Principj di Architettura Civile, 3. Finale, Italy. Motamedmanesh 2021, Motamedmanesh, M., “Precursors of aseismic design: The case of Achaemenid monumental architecture”, History of Construction Cultures, Volume 2 (eds. Mascarenhas-Mateus-A. P. Pires- M.M. Caiado-I. Veiga), London, 9-16.
• Naumann 1998, Naumann, R., Eski Anadolu Mimarlığı, Ankara. Nazidizaji et al. 2014, Nazidizaji, S.-Tomè, A.-Regateiro, F., “The architecture and construction processes of the vernacular Shikili Houses in Gilān, northern Iran”, Construction History 29. 2, 63-82.
• Newton-Kuniholm 2004, Newton, M.W.-Kuniholm, P. I., “A Dendrochronological Framework for the Assyrian Colony Period in Asia Minor”, TÜBA-AR 7, 165-176.
• Noonan 1973, Noonan, T. S., “Origins of the Greek Colony at Panticapaeum”, American Journal of Archaeology, 77.1, 77-81.
• Özgüç 1966, Özgüç, N., “Excavations at Acemhöyük”, Anatolia/Anadolu 10, 29-52. Palyvou 1988, Palyvou, C., Akrotiri Thera: Building techniques and morphology in Late Cycladic architecture, (Unpublished Phd Thesis), Technical University, Athens.
• Palyvou 1990, Palyvou, C., “Architectural design at Late Cycladic Akrotiri”, Thera and the Aegean World III (eds. D. Hardy-C. Doumas-J. Sakellarakis-P. Warren), Volume 1, London, 44-56.
• Papadopoulous 2010, Papadopoulous, K., “The Restoration of the North-Side Foundation of the Temple of Apollo Epikourios”, International Journal of Architectural Heritage 4, 246–269.
• Pescatore-Viggiani 1991, Pescatore, T.S.-Viggiani, C., “Geologia della piana del Sele e caratteri del sottosuolo dell’area di Paestum”, Etude de cas de vulnérabilité du patrimoine, PACT 32, 29-42.
• Petrie 1897, Petrie, W. M. F., Six Temples at Thebes, London. Radt 1994, Radt, W., “Pergamon: Vorbericht über die Kampagne 1993”, AA 1993, 403-432.
• Rapp 1982, Rapp, G., “Earhquakes in the Troad”, Troy, The Archaeological Geology, Supplemantary Monograph 4, Princeton, 43-58.
• Ratté 1993, Ratté, C., “Lydian Contributions.” Les Grands ateliers d’architecture dans le monde égéen du Vi siècle av. J.-C.: actes du colloque d’Istanbul, 23-25 mai 1991 (eds. J. Des Courtils-J.-C. Moretti), Paris, 1-12.
• Reid 1995, Reid, T. R., “Heavy Damage Rattles Belief in Safe Design”, The Washington Post. Ritner 1993, Ritner, R. K., Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice, Chicago.
• Rogers 2012, Rogers, G. M., The Mysteries of Artemis of Ephesos, Cult, Polis and Change in the Graeco-Roman World, New Haven and London.
• Schaber 1982, Schaber, W., Die archaischen Tempel der Artemis von Ephesos, Waldsassen.
• Schaudig 2001, Schaudig, H., Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros’ des Großen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendenzschriften, Textausgabe und Grammatik, Münster.
• Schaudig 2010, Schaudig, H., “The Restoration of Temples in the Neo-and Late Babylonian Periods: A Royal Prerogative as the Setting for Political Argument”, From the Foundations to the Crenellations Essays on Temple Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible (eds. Mark J. Boda-Jamie Novotny); Münster, 141-164.
• Shaw 2009, Shaw, Joseph W., Minoan Architecture: Materials and Techniques, Padova.
• Sinn 1985, Sinn, U., “Der sogenannte Tempel D im Heraion von Samos. II. Ein archäologischer Befund aus der Nachpolykratischen Zeit mit einem Exkurs zum Griechischen Bauopfer”, AM 100, 129-58.
• Spencer 1979, Spencer, A. J., “The Brick Foundations of Late-Period Peripteral Temples and their Mythical Origin”, Glimpses of Ancient Egypt, Studies on Honour of H.W. Fairman (eds. J. Ruffle-G.A. Gaballa-K.A. Kitchen), Warminster, 132-7.
• Spencer 2011, Spencer, J., “The Egyptian temple and settlement at Naukratis”, British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 17, 31-49.
• Spencer 2017, Spencer, J., “The Exploration of Tell Belim, 1999–2002”, The Journal of Aegyptian Archaeology, 88.1, 37-52.
• Stevenson 1868, Stevenson, D., “Notice of Aseismatic Arrangements, adapted to Structures in Countries subject to Earthquake Shocks”, Transaction of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts 7, 557-566.
• Stiros 1995, Stiros, S., “Archaeological evidence of antiseismic constructions in Antiquity”, Annals of Geophysics 38. 5-6, 725–736.
• Stiros 1996, Stiros, S., Identification of earthquakes from archaeological data: methodology, criteria and limitations, Archaeoseismology 7, 129-152.
• Thompson 1960, Thompson, H. C., “A Row of Cedar Beams”, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 92, 57-63.
• Tsakanika 2006, Tsakanika, E., The Structural Role of Timber in Masonry of Palatial Type Buildings in the Minoan Crete, (Unpublished Phd Thesis), National Technical University of Athens.
• Ulrich 2007, Ulrich, Roger B., Roman Woodworking, New Haven. Vann 1976, Vann, R. L., A Study of Roman Construction in Asia Minor: The Lingering Role of a Hellenistic Tradition of Ashlar Masonry, (Unpublished PhD. Thesis), Cornell University.
• Wasowicz 1975, Wasowicz, A., Olbia Pontique et son territoire: l’amenagement de L’espace, Paris. Weinstein 1973, Weinstein, J. M., Foundation Deposits in Ancient Egypt, (Unpublished Phd Thesis), University of Pennsylvania.
• Xiao et al. 2004, Xiao, U.-Butterworth, J.W.-Larkin, T., “Low-technology techniques for seismic isolation”, NZSEE Conference.