Exploring the Function of Home Gardens in Strengthening the Resilience of Social-Ecological Landscapes through Cross-Scale Interactions: A case Study from Lefke City of the Northern Cyprus

Öz

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the function of home gardens in strengthening the resilience of the social-ecological landscape system in Lefke City of the Northern Cyprus through a set of cross-scale interactions. In doing so, the objectives of the study were (i) to design a conceptual framework that links the resilience of the home garden and landscape systems through a range of cross-scale interactions, (ii) to identify the major cross-scale resilience assessment indicators at the home garden (site) scale, and (iii) to quantify the resilience of the home garden system and to evaluate its inter-linkages with the resilience of the landscape system. The method of the study consisted of three parts. Firstly, a conceptual framework, which depicts the relationship between the resilience of the home garden and landscape systems through a set of cross-scale interactions, was designed by reviewing the relevant literatures. Secondly, appropriated cross-scale resilience assessment indicators at the home garden scale were identified through an in-depth literature review. Thirdly, the relevant data on the indentified indicators were collected by employing a social preference approach and then evaluated by performing the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). A social preference approach was adopted to collect the relevant data. Within this context, a questionnaire form was designed to explore stakeholders’ perceptions regarding the objectives of the study. The interviewers expressed their perceptions on a 0-5 Likert Scale. Assessment of the results revealed that plant diversity and spatial connectivity are the key cross-scale principles to link the ecological resilience of the home garden with landscape systems. The social resilience of the both systems is interlinked with five principles (maintenance of food production, income diversification, demographics, cultural heritage, and traditional knowledge). The average relative value of the ecological and social resilience of the home garden system was estimated to be medium with a 3,15 points and low with a 2,16 points respectively. The total average relative value of the resilience of the home garden system was estimated to be low with a 2,41 points. Several drivers (e.g. intensive urbanization and landscape fragmentation) have been identified as the driving forces behind the decline of the resilience of the both systems. Understanding the interconnectedness between the resilience of different spatial units and scales may help policy-makers, planners, and land managers to design a mechanism that integrates the cross-scale interactions into planning and relevant strategies.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Social-ecological landscape,home garden,resilience,cross-scale interactions,cross-scale resilience assessment indicators,Northern Cyprus

Kaynakça

1. Adger., W.N. (2000). Social and ecological resilience: are they related. Progress in Human Geography, 24(3), 347–364.
2. Agbogidi, O.M., and Adolor, E.B. (2013). Home gardens in the maintenance of biological diversity. App. Sci. Rep, 1(1), 19-25.
3. Ahern, J. (2011). From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: Sustainability and resilience in the new urban world. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100, 341-343.
4. Baral, H., Keenan, R.J., Stork, N.E., Kasel, S. (2014). Measuring and managing ecosystem goods and services in changing landscapes: a south-east Australian perspective. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 57(7), 961-983.
5. Berkes, F. (1999). Sacred ecology: Traditional ecological knowledge and resource management. Philadelphia and London: Taylor and Francis.
6. Berkes, F., and Folke, C. (1998). Linking social and ecological systems: management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
7. Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological applications, 10(5), 1251–1262.
8. Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (Eds.). (2003). Navigating social–ecological systems: Building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

9. Biggs, R., Schlüter, M., Biggs, D., Bohensky, E.L., BurnSilver, S., Cundill, G., Dakos, V., Daw, T.M., Evans, L.S., Kotschy, K., Leitch, A.M., Meek, C., Quinlan, A., Raudsepp-Hearne, C., Robards, M.D., Schoon, M.L., Schultz, L., West, P.C. (2012). Toward principles for enhancing the resilience of ecosystem services. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 37(3), 3.1-3.28.
10. Binder, C.R., Hinkel, J., Bots, P.W.G., Pahl-Wostl, C. (2013). Comparison of framework for analyzing socio-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 18(4), 26.
11. Bodin, Ö., and Prell, C. (Eds). (2011). Social networks and natural resource management: uncovering the social fabric of environmental governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12. Carabine E, Venton C.C, Tanner T, Bahadur A. (2015). The contribution of ecosystem services to human resilience. Shaping policy for development. February 2015. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/9394.pdf (accessed on 26.09.2017).
13. Carpenter, S.R., and Brock, W.A. (2008). Adaptive capacity and traps. Ecology and society, 13(2), 40.
14. Charette-Castonguay A. (2014). Assessment of resilience and adaptability of social-ecological systems: a case study of Banaaue rice terraces. Master Thesis. Christian-Albrechts Universität zu Kiel.Chelleri, L. (2012). From the “Resilient City” to urban resilience. A review essay on understanding and integrating the resilience perspective for urban system. Documents d’ Analisi Geografica, vol. 58/2, 287-306.
15. Ciftcioglu, G.C. (2015). Sustainable wild-collection of medicinal and edible plants in Lefke Region of North Cyprus. Journal of Agroforestry Systems (AGFO), 89(5), 917–931.
16. Ciftcioglu, G.C. (2017a). Assessment of the resilience of social–ecological landscapes and seascapes: A case study from Lefke Region of North Cyprus. Journal of Ecological Indicators, 73, 128–138.
17. Ciftcioglu, G.C. (2017b). Social preference-based valuation of the links between home gardens, ecosystem services, and human wellbeing in Lefke Region of Northern Cyprus. Ecosystem Services, 25, 227-236.
18. Ciftcioglu, G.C. (2017c). Assessment of the relationship between ecosystem services and human wellbeing in the social-ecological landscapes of Lefke Region in North Cyprus. Landscape Ecology, 32(4): 897-913.
19. Ciftcioglu, G.C. (2018). Revealing major terrestrial- and marine species-based provisioning ecosystem services provided by the socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes of Lefke Region in North Cyprus. Journal of Environment, Development and Sustainability, (20)1, 197-221.
20. Ciftcioglu, G.C., and Sunalp, C. (2019). Exploring the linkages between the building, home garden and human system resilience in Lefke Region of North Cyprus. Landscape Research, 44:6, 716-730.
21. Ciftcioglu, G.C., Ebedi, S., Abak, K. (2019). Evaluation of the relationship between ornamental plants-based ecosystem services and human wellbeing: A case study from Lefke Region of North Cyprus. Ecological Indicators, 102, 278-288.
22. Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S. J., Kubiszewski, I., & Turner, R.K. (2014). Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Global Environmental Change, 26, 152-158.
23. Cunningham K.L. (2013). Resilience theory/A framework for engaging urban design. Master Thesis of Landscape Architecture, Kansas State University. US.
24. Dakos, V., Quinlan, A., Baggio, J.A., Bennett, E., Bodin, Ö., Burn Silver, S. (2015). Principle 2 – Manage connectivity. In: Principles for building resilience, sustaining ecosystem services in social-ecological systems (Eds: Biggs R, Schlüter M, Schoon M. L). 80-104.
25. Delipetrou, P., Makhzoumi, J., Dimopoulos, P., Georghiou, K. (2008). Cyprus. In: Vogiatzakis, I., Pungetti, G., Mannion, A.M. (Eds.), Mediterranean Island Landscapes, Natural and Cultural Approaches. Springer, Berlin, pp. 170–219.
26. Desouza, K. C., Flanery, T., Alex, J., & Park, E. (2012). Getting serious about resilience in planning. Planetizen. Available at: http://www.planetizen.com/node/57827 (cited on 15.05.2019).
27. Dewaelheyns V, Bomans K, Gulinck H (eds). (2011). The powerful garden: emerging views on the garden concept. Garant, Antwerp-Apeldoorn.
28. Díaz, S., Pascual, U., Stenseke, M., Martín-López, B., Watson, R.T., Molnár, Z., Hill, R., Chan, K.M.A., Baste I.A., Brauman, K.A., Polasky, S., Church, A., Lonsdale, M., Larigauderie, A., Leadley, P.W., van Oudenhoven, A.P.E., van der Plaat, F., Schröter, M., Lavorel, S., Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y., Bukvareva, E., Davies, K., Demissew, S., Erpul, G., Failler, P., Guerra, C.A., Hewitt, C.L., Keune, H., Lindley, S., and Shirayama, Y. (2018). Assessing nature’s contributions to people. Science, 359 (6373), 270-272.
29. Du Plessis, C. (2008). Understanding cities as social-ecological systems. World Sustainable Building Conference – SB’08, Melbourne, Australia, 21-25 September. Available at: http://www.dpi.inpe.br/Miguel/AnaPaulaDAlasta/DuPlessis_UnderstandingCitiesas%20SSEs_2008.pdf (cited on 11.04.2019).
30. Evans, T., and Caylor, K. (2009). Spatial resilience in social-ecological systems: Household-level distribution of risk exposure and coping strategies in Eastern Province (Zambia). Resilience Project Report. Available at: http://www.chikyu.ac.jp/resilience/files/ReportFY2009/ResilienceProject_Report2009_16.pdf (cited on 11.04.2019).
31. Farinha-Marques, P., Fernandes, C., Guilherme, F., Lameiras, J.M., Alves, P., Bunce, R.G.H. (2017). Urban habitats biodiversity assessment (UrHBA): a standardized procedure for recording biodiversity and its spatial distribution in urban environments. Landscape Ecology, 32(9), 1753-1770.
32. Fischer, A.P. (2018). Forest landscapes as social-ecological systems and implications for management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 177, 138-147.
33. Fletcher, R., Baulcomb, C., Hall, C., Hussain, S. (2014). Revealing marine cultural ecosystem services in the Black Sea. Marine Policy, 50(Part A), 151-161.
34. Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16,253-267.
35. Folke, C., Carpenter, S.R., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Chapin, T., and Rockstrom, J. (2010). Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability. Ecology and Society, 15 (4).
36. Folke, C., Biggs, R., Norström, A.V., Reyers, B., and Rockström, J. (2016). Social-ecological resilience and biosphere-based sustainability science. Ecology and Society, 21(3), 41.
37. Gaffikin L. (2009). Population growth, ecosystem services and human well-being. Chapter 8 in: A Pivotal Moment: Population, Justice and the Environmental Challenge (Ed: Laurie Ann Mazur). Island Press. Washington D.C. pp. 124-135.
38. Gallopín, G.C. (1991). Human dimensions of global change: linking the global and the local processes. International Social Science Journal, 43(4), 707-718.
39. Gunderson, L.H., and Holling, C.S. (Eds). (2002). Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Washington, D.C: Island Press.Hadjikyriakou, G.N., & Hadjisterkotis, E. (2002). The adventive plants of Cyprus with new records of invasive species. Zeitschrift fu¨r Jagdwissenschaft, 48, 59.
40. Hadjisterkotis, E. (2001). The Cyprus mouflon, a threaten species in a biodiversity hotspot area. In Nahlik, A., & Uloth, W. (Eds.), Proceedings of the third international symposium on Mouflon, Sopron, Hungary (pp. 71–81).
41. Hall, A.D., & Fagen, R.E. (1956). Definition of system. II. General systems, 1, 18–28.
42. Hassler, U., & Kohler, N. (2016). Resilience in the built environment. Journal of Building Research & Information, 42(2), 119–129.
43. Heslinga, J.H., Groote, P., Vanclay, F. (2017). Using a social-ecological systems perspective to understand tourism and landscape interactions in coastal areas. Journal of Tourism Futures, 3(1), 23-38.
44. Holling, C.S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, 1-23.
45. Holling, C.S. (2001). Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems, 4, 390-405.
46. Holling, C.S., Schindler, D.W., Walker, B.W. and Roughgarden, J. (1995). Biodiversity in the functioning of ecosystems: an ecological synthesis. In C. Perrings, K.G. Mäler, C. Folke, C.S. Holling and B.O. Jansson (eds.), Biodiversity loss: economic and ecological issues (pp. 44-83). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
47. Homeland Security. (2016). Mitigation Framework Leadership Group (MitFLG) Draft Concept Paper, Draft Interagency Concept for Community Resilience Indicators and National-Level Measures. Published for Stakeholder Comment in June 2016. Available at: https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1466085676217-a14e229a461adfa574a5d03041a6297c/FEMA-CRI-Draft-Concept-Paper-508_Jun_2016.pdf (accessed on 15.04.2019).
48. Janssen, M.A., Anderies, J.M., Ostrom, E. (2007). Robustness of social-ecological systems to spatial and temporal variability. Society and Natural Resources, 20, 307-322.
49. Kallaos, J., Wyckmans, A., & Mainguy, G. (2014). WP 2: Taxonomy of architecture and infrastructure indicators, D2.1: Synthesis review on resilient architecture infrastructure indicators (RAMSES project reference code: RAMSES-D2.1). Available at: http://www.ramses-cities.eu/fileadmin/uploads/Deliverables_Uploaded/28022014_deliverable_ramses_d2_1.pdf (accessed on 16.05.2019).
50. KKTC Devlet Planlama Örgütü. (2013). KKTC Nüfus Sayımı, 2011. Bülten: Kesin Sonuçlar, İkinci Aşama. Resource document. Available at:http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20ikinci_.pdf (Accessed 28 Oct 2015).
51. Kotschy, K.A. (2013). Biodiversity, redundancy and resilience of riparian vegetation under different land management regimes. PhD Thesis, Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand.Kotschy, K., Biggs, R., Daw, T., Folke, C., West, P. (2015). Principle 1 – Maintain diversity and redundancy. In R. Biggs, M. Schlüter, M.L. Schoon (Eds), Principles for building resilience, sustaining ecosystem services in social-ecological systems (pp. 50-79).
52. Leenhardt, P., Teneva, L., Kininmonth, S., Darling, E., Cooley, S., Claudet, J. (2015). Challenges, insights and perspectives associated with using social-ecological science for marine conservation. Ocean & Coastal Management, 115, 49-60.
53. Leslie, P., and McCabe, J.T. (2013). Response diversity and resilience in social– ecological systems. Current Anthropology, 54, 114–143.
54. Levin, S.A. (1998). Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems. Ecosystems, 1, 431–36.
55. Lizarralde, G., Valladares, A., Olivera, A., Bornstein, L., Gould, K., Barenstein, J.D. (2014). A system approach to resilience in the built environment: The case of Cuba. Journal of Disasters, 39(Sı), S76–S95.
56. Longstaff, P.H., Keli Perrin, A., Parker, W.M., Hidek, M.A. (2010). Building resilient communities: A preliminary framework for assessment. Homeland Security Affairs, Volume VI, No. 3 (September 2010).
57. Maruyama, H. (2016). Taxonomy and general strategies for resilience. In: Urban resilience – a transformative approach. Springer International Publishing Switzerland. 3-21 pp.
58. McNeely J.A. (2010). People, Ecosystems and Climate: Governance Risks from the Degradation of Ecosystem Services in the Face of Ongoing Climate Change. IRGC-Emerging Risks, McNeely. October 2010. Available at: https://irgc.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/ER_and_Ecosystem_Services__McNeely.pdf (accessed on 18.02.2019).
59. McPhearson, T., Hamstead, Z.A., Kremer, P. (2014). Urban ecosystem services for resilience planning and management in New York City. AMBIO, 43, 502-515.
60. Mele, C., Pels, J., Polese, F. (2010). A brief review of systems theories and their managerial applications. Service Science, 2(1-2), 126-135.
61. Mijatović, D., van Oudenhoven, F., Eyzaguirre, P., Hodgkin, T. (2013). The role of agricultural biodiversity in strengthening resilience to climate change: towards an analytical framework. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 11(2), 95-107.
62. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis, Island Press, Washington, D.C.
63. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., de Fonseca, G.A.B., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853–858.
64. Nassauer, J.I. (1995). Culture and changing landscape structure. Landscape Ecology, 10(4), 229–237.Nassauer, J.I. (1997). Cultural sustainability - Aligning aesthetics and ecology. In J. I. Nassauer (Ed.). Placing nature - culture and landscape ecology (pp. 67–83). Washington, DC: Island Press.
65. Norris, K. (2012). Biodiversity in the context of ecosystem services: the applied need for systems approaches. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci., 367(1586), 191–199.
66. Nyström, M., and Folke, C. (2001). Spatial resilience of coral reefs. Ecosystems, 4, 406–417.
67. Ostrom, E. (2007). Sustainable social-ecological systems: An impossible? Presented at the 2007 Annual Meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, “Science and Technology for Sustainable Well-Being,” 15–19 February in San Francisco, USA. Available at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c546/a1a26b8f89c849e803fe2dae404734aedc46.pdf (accessed on 15.05.2019).
68. Pahl-Wostl, C. (2007). The implications of complexity for integrated resources management. Environ. Model. Softw., 22, 561–69.
69. Perrings, C. (2006). Resilience and sustainable development. Environment and Development Economics, 11, 417-427. Doi:10.1017/S1355770X06003020.
70. Peters, D.P.C., Bestelmeyer, B.T., Turner, M.G. (2007). Cross-scale interactions and changing pattern-process relationships: Consequences for system dynamics. Ecosystems, 10, 790-796.
71. Petrosillo I, Aretano R. and Zurlini G. (2015). Socioecological systems. In: Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences (Eds: Scott A. Elias). Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.09518-X.
72. Pickett, S.T.A., Burch, W.R., Dalton, S.E., Foresman, T.W., Grove, J.M., Rowntree, R. (1997). A conceptual framework for the study of human ecosystems in urban areas. Urban Ecosystems, (1), 185-199.
73. Plieninger T and Bieling C. (2012). Connecting cultural landscapes to resilience, in: Plieninger, T., and Bieling, C. (Eds.), Resilience and the cultural landscape: Understanding change in human-shaped environments, Cambridge University Press. UK. pp.3-26.
74. Plummer, R., and Armitage, D. (2007). A resilience-based framework for evaluating adaptive eco-management: linking ecology, economics and society in a complex world. Ecological Economics, 61(1), 62-74.
75. Polegri, L., and Negri, V. (2010). Molecular markers for promoting agro-biodiversity conservation: a case study from Italy how cowpea land races were saved from extinction. Genetic Resource Crop, 57, 867-880.
76. Preiser,R., Biggs, R., De Vos, A., and Folke, C. (2018). Social-ecological systems as complex adaptive systems: organizing principles for advancing research methods and approaches. Ecology and Society, 23(4), 46.
77. Ruhl, J.B., and Stuart Chapin, F. (2013). Ecosystem services, ecosystem resilience, and ecosystem management policy (November 26, 2012. In: Resilience and Law (Eds: Craig R. Allen and Ahjond S. Garmestani). Colombia University Press, 2013; Vanderbilt Public Law Research Paper No. 12-41. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2181093 (cited on 02.10.2017).
78. Sanderson, E.W., Redford, K.H., Vedder, A., Coppolilo, P.B., Ward, S.E. (2002). A conceptual model for conservation planning based on landscape species requirements. Landscape and Urban Planning, 58, 41–56.
79. Sarkki S, Ficko A, Wielgolaski FE, Abraham EM, Bratanova-Doncheva S, Grunewald K, Hofgaard A, Holtmeier FK, Kyriazopoulos AP, Broll G, Nijnik M, Sutinen ML. (2017). Assessing the resilient provision of ecosystem services by social-ecological systems: introduction and theory. Clim Research. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309439891_Assessing_the_resilient_provision_of_ecosystem_services_by_social-ecological_systems_Introduction_and_theory (accessed on 15.05.2019).
80. Schipper, E. L., & Langston, L. (2015). A comparative overview of resilience measurement framework, analysing indicators and approaches. Overseas Development Institute Working Paper 422.
81. Scholz R W, Binder C.R, and Lang D.J. (2011). The HES Framework. Pages 453-462 in R. W. Scholz. Environmental literacy in science and society: from knowledge to decisions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
82. Scott L. (2015). Systems theory terms. 20th November 2015. Available at: https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/DshBToGnNbTBD7BSw/systems-theory-terms (cited on 14.12.2018).
83. Sharifi A and Yamagata Y. (2016a). Urban resilience assessment: multiple dimensions, criteria, and indicators. In: Urban Resilience (Eds: Yamagata Y and Hiroshi M). pp. 259-276.
84. Sharifi, A., & Yamagata, Y. (2016b). Principles and criteria for assessing urban energy resilience: A literature review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 60, 1654–1677.
85. Smith, R.M., Thompson, K., Hodgson, J.G. (2006). Urban domestic gardens ix: composition and richness of the vascular plant flora, and implications for native biodiversity. Biological Conservation, 129, 312-322.
86. Suárez, M., Gómez-Baggethun, E., Benayas, J., Tilbury, D. (2016). Towards an urban resilience index: A case study in 50 Spanish cities. Sustainability, 8, 774.
87. Tengberg, A., Fredholm, S., Eliasson, I., Knez, I., Saltzman, K., Wetterberg, O. (2012). Cultural ecosystem services provided by landscapes: Assessment of heritage values and identity. Ecosystem Services, 2, 14-26.
88. Tomaselli R. (1977). The degradation of the Mediterranean maquis. Ambio 6(6), The Mediterranean: A Special Issue: 356-362. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4312322 (cited on 18.03.2019).
89. Turner, B.L., Kasperson, R.E., Matson, P., McCarthy, J.J., Corell, R.W., Christensen, L., Eckley, N., Kasperson, J.X., Luers, A., Martello, M.L., Polsky, C., Pulsipher, A., Schiller, A. (2003). A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(14), 8074-8079.
90. UNESCO-FAO.(1969). Ecological study of the Mediterranean zone: vegetation map of the Mediterranean zone-explanatory notes. In: Arid Zone Res, 30:90 Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000700/070037mo.pdf (accessed on 15.05.2019).
91. Unnasch, R.S., D.P. Braun, P.J. Comer, G.E. Eckert. (2008). The ecological integrity assessment framework: A framework for assessing the ecological integrity of biological and ecological resources of the National Park System. Report to the National Park Service. Available at: http://npshistory.com/publications/eq/rmp/ecological-integrity-framework.pdf (accessed on 15.05.2019).
92. UNU-IAS United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies. (2013). Indicators of resilience in socio-ecological landscapes (SEPLs). UNU-IAS Policy Report (Authors: Bergamini N., Blasiak R., Eyzaguirre, Ichikawa K., Mijatovic D., Nakao F., Subramanian S.M.). http://archive.ias.unu.edu/resource centre/Indicators-of-resilience-in-sepls ev.pdf (accessed on 21.06.18).
93. Vural M, Zeydanlı U.U, Beton D, Meraklı M.K. (2010). Determining core areas of floral species richness in the Karpaz Peninsula (Cyprus). TOP Biodiversity2010—conference Proceedings, Intercollege-Larnaca, Cyprus, pp.154–155.
94. Walker, B.H. (1992). Biodiversity and ecological redundancy. Conservation Biology, 6, 18–23.
95. Walker, B.H. (1995). Conserving biological diversity through ecosystem resilience. Conservation Biology, 9, 747–752.
96. Walker, B., Carpenter, S., Anderies, J., Abel, N., Cumming, G., Janssen, M., Lebel, L., Norberg, J., Peterson, G., Pritchard, R. (2002). Resilience management in social-ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a participatory approach. Conservation Ecology, 6,14.
97. Walker, B., Holling, C.S., Carpenter, S.R. and Kinzig, A. (2004). Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 9(2).
98. Walker, B. H., and Salt D. (2006). Resilience thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world. Washington, DC: Island Press.
99. Whitney, C. K., N. J. Bennett, N.C. Ban, E. H. Allison, D. Armitage, J.L. Blythe, J.M. Burt, W. Cheung, E.M. Finkbeiner, M. Kaplan-Hallam, I. Perry, N.J. Turner, and L. Yumagulova. (2017). Adaptive capacity: from assessment to action in coastal social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 22(2), 22.
100. Wiens, J.A. (1999). Toward a unified landscape ecology. In J. A. Wiends, & M. R. Moss (Eds.). Issues in landscape ecology (pp. 148–151). Snowmass Village, USA: International Association for Landscape Ecology.