Gelir Eşitsizliği, Ekonomik Büyüme, Küreselleşme ve Karbondioksit Emisyonları Arasındaki Bağlantının Ortaya Çıkarılması: E7 Ülkelerinden Kanıtlar

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 27 Sayı: 2, 641 - 656, 29.11.2024

Gazi Polat , Volkan Han

https://doi.org/10.29249/selcuksbmyd.1525897

Öz

İklim değişikliği ve gelir dağılımında adaletsizlik, ekonomi literatüründe geniş kapsamlı araştırmalara konu olmuş, önemli ve çok boyutlu meselelerdir. Gelir eşitsizliği, ekonomik büyüme ve kalkınma üzerindeki olumsuz etkilerinin yanı sıra, çeşitli mekanizmalar aracılığıyla çevresel kaliteyi ve toplum sağlığını da negatif yönde etkileyebilir. Bu çalışmada, karbon emisyonları ve gelir dağılımında adaletsizlik arasındaki dinamik ilişkiyi ekonomik büyüme ve küreselleşme bağlamında E7 ülkeleri için analiz etmek amaçlanmıştır. Literatürde, gelir dağılımındaki adaletsizliğin çevresel kaliteyi, özellikle karbon emisyonlarını etkileyebileceği vurgulanırken, karbon emisyonlarındaki değişimin de gelir dağılımını etkileyebileceğine ilişkin çeşitli mekanizmalar önerilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, 1990-2018 yılları arasında E7 ülkeleri için yıllık veriler kullanılarak Panel VAR analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Analiz sonuçları, karbon emisyonlarının ve ekonomik büyümenin gelir eşitsizliğini artırdığını, küreselleşmenin ise gelir eşitsizliğini azalttığını göstermektedir. Granger nedensellik analizinde ise, gelir dağılımı ve CO2 arasında çift yönlü bir nedensellik ilişkisi bulunmuştur; bu, gelir dağılımını iyileştirmeye yönelik politikaların CO2 emisyonlarını azaltabileceğini ve benzer şekilde, CO2 emisyonlarının kontrol edilmesinin de gelir dağılımını daha adil hale getirebileceğini göstermektedir. Gelir dağılımı ile küreselleşme arasında da çift yönlü bir nedensellik ilişkisi tespit edilmiştir, bu da küreselleşmenin gelir dağılımını iyileştirebileceğini ve daha adil bir gelir dağılımının küreselleşmeyi teşvik edebileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Son olarak, ekonomik büyümenin gelir dağılımındaki adaletsizliği artırıcı bir etki yaptığı belirlenmiştir. Bu bulgular, çevresel ve ekonomik politikaların gelir dağılımı üzerindeki etkilerini dikkate alarak, politika yapıcıların daha dengeli ve adil bir büyüme stratejisi geliştirmeleri gerektiğini vurgulamaktadır. Bu çalışma, E7 ülkeleri gibi hızlı ekonomik büyüme dinamiklerine sahip gelişmekte olan ülkeler için çevre ve ekonomi politikalarının uyumlu ve entegre bir şekilde ele alınması gerektiğini göstermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Gelir Eşitsizliği, Karbon Emisyonu, Panel Var Analizi

Unveiling the Nexus Between Income Inequality, Economic Growth, Globalization, and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Evidence from E7 Nations

Öz

Climate change and injustice in income distribution are important and multidimensional issues that have been the subject of extensive research in the economic literature. Income inequality, in addition to its negative effects on economic growth and development, can also negatively affect environmental quality and public health through various mechanisms. This study aims to analyze the dynamic relationship between carbon emissions and injustice in income distribution for the E7 countries in the context of economic growth and globalization. While it is emphasized in the literature that injustice in income distribution can affect environmental quality, especially carbon emissions, various mechanisms are suggested for how changes in carbon emissions can also affect income distribution. In this study, Panel VAR analysis was carried out using annual data for the E7 countries between 1990 and 2018. The analysis results show that carbon emissions and economic growth increase income inequality, while globalization decreases income inequality. In the Granger causality analysis, a bidirectional causality relationship was found between income distribution and CO2; This shows that policies to improve income distribution can reduce CO2 emissions and similarly, controlling CO2 emissions can make income distribution more equitable. A bidirectional causality relationship has also been found between income distribution and globalization, which suggests that globalization can improve income distribution and that a more equitable income distribution can encourage globalization. Finally, it has been determined that economic growth has an increasing effect on income distribution inequality. These findings emphasize that policy makers should develop a more balanced and equitable growth strategy by taking into account the effects of environmental and economic policies on income distribution. This study shows that environmental and economic policies should be addressed in a harmonious and integrated manner for developing countries with rapid economic growth dynamics, such as the E7 countries.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Income Inequality, Carbon Emission, Panel Var Analysis

Kaynakça

• Abrigo, M. R., & Love, I. (2016). Estimation Of Panel Vector Autoregression İn Stata. The Stata Journal, 16(3), 778-804. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1601600314
• Akçayır, Ö. (2024). Karbon Emisyonunun Negatif Dışsallığı ve Gelir Eşitsizliğine Etkisi: Multidisipliner Bakış Açısı. Ekonomi Maliye İşletme Dergisi, 7(1), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.46737/emid.1485142
• Ali, H. S., Hassan, S., & Kofarmata, Y. I. (2016). Dynamic İmpact Of İncome İnequality On Carbon Dioxide Emissions İn Africa: New Evidence From Heterogeneous Panel Data Analysis. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 6(4), 760-766
• Baek, J., & Gweisah, G. (2013). Does income inequality harm the environment? Empirical evidence from the United States. Energy Policy, 62, 1434-1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.097
• Barros, L. A., Bergmann, D. R., Castro, F. H., & Silveira, A. D. M. D. (2020). Endogeneity in panel data regressions: methodological guidance for corporate finance researchers. Revista Brasileira de Gestão de Negócios, 22, 437-461. https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v22i0.4059
• Boubtane, E., Coulibaly, D., & Rault, C. (2013). Immigration, Growth, and Unemployment. Labour, 27, 399-420. https://doi.org/10.1111/labr.12017
• Bowles, S., & Park, Y. (2005). Emulation, inequality, and work hours: Was Thorsten Veblen right? The Economic Journal, 115(507), F397-F412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2005.01042.x
• Boyce, J. K. (1994). Inequality as a cause of environmental degradation. Ecological Economics, 11(3), 169-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(94)90198-8
• Canova, F., Ciccarelli, M., & Ortega, E. (2007). Similarities and convergence in G-7 cycles. Journal of Monetary Economics, 54(3), 850-878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2005.10.022
• Canova, F., & Ciccarelli, M. (2013). Panel vector autoregressive models: A Survey. In T.B. Fomby, L. Kilian and A. Murphy (Eds.), VAR models in macroeconomics – New developments and applications: essays in honor of Christopher A. Sims: Volume 32 (pp. 205-246). https://doi.org/10.1108/S0731-9053(2013)0000031006
• Chen, J., Xian, Q., Zhou, J., & Li, D. (2020). Impact of income inequality on CO2 emissions in G20 countries. Journal of Environmental Management, 271, 110987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110987
• Cho, H. (2021). Determinants of the downward sloping segment of the EKC in high-income countries: The role of income inequality and institutional arrangement. Cogent Economics & Finance, 9(1), 1954358. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2021.1954358
• Demir, C., Cergibozan, R., & Gök, A. (2019). Income inequality and CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence from Turkey. Energy & Environment, 30(3), 444-461. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X18793109
• Fodha, M., & Zaghdoud, O. (2010). Economic growth and pollutant emissions in Tunisia: an empirical analysis of the environmental Kuznets curve. Energy Policy, 38(2), 1150-1156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.11.002
• Gao, X., & Fan, M. (2023). The effect of income inequality and economic growth on carbon dioxide emission. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(24), 65149-65159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27009-x
• Gilens, M., & Page, B. I. (2014). Testing theories of American politics: Elites, interest groups, and average citizens. Perspectives on Politics, 12(3), 564-581. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592714001595
• Golley, J., & Meng, X. (2012). Income inequality and carbon dioxide emissions: The case of Chinese urban households. Energy Economics, 34(6), 1864-1872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.07.025
• Grunewald, N., Klasen, S., Martínez-Zarzoso, I., & Muris, C. (2017). The trade-off between income inequality and carbon dioxide emissions. Ecological Economics, 142, 249-256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.06.034
• Hailemariam, A., Dzhumashev, R., & Shahbaz, M. (2020). Carbon emissions, income inequality and economic development. Empirical Economics, 59(3), 1139-1159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-019-01664-x
• Hadri, K. (2000). Testing for Stationarity in Heterogeneous Panel Data. Econometric Journal, 3(2), 148–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/1368-423X.00043
• Hao, Y., Chen, H., & Zhang, Q. (2016). Will income inequality affect environmental quality? Analysis based on China's provincial panel data. Ecological Indicators, 67, 533-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.03.025
• Heerink, N., Mulatu, A., & Bulte, E. (2001). Income inequality and the environment: aggregation bias in environmental Kuznets curves. Ecological Economics, 38(3), 359-367. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(01)00171-9
• Hou, A., Liu, A., & Chai, L. (2024). Does reducing income inequality promote the decoupling of economic growth from carbon footprint? World Development, 173, 106423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106423
• Hübler, M. (2017). The inequality-emissions nexus in the context of trade and development: a quantile regression approach. Ecological Economics, 134, 174-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.015
• Huang, Z., & Duan, H. (2020). Estimating the threshold interactions between income inequality and carbon emissions. Journal of Environmental Management, 263, 110393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110393
• Jorgenson, A., Schor, J., & Huang, X. (2017). Income inequality and carbon emissions in the United States: a state-level analysis, 1997–2012. Ecological Economics, 134, 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.016
• Katos, A. V., Lawler, K. A., & Seddighi, H. R. (2000). Econometrics: A practical approach. London and New York: Routledge
• Khan, S. A. R. (2019). The nexus between carbon emissions, poverty, economic growth, and logistics operations: Empirical evidence from southeast Asian countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(13), 13210-13220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04829-4
• Khan, S., & Yahong, W. (2022). Income inequality, ecological footprint, and carbon dioxide emissions in Asian developing economies: What effects what and how? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(17), 24660-24671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17582-4
• Khan, H., Weili, L., & Khan, I. (2023). The effect of political stability, carbon dioxide emission and economic growth on income inequality: Evidence from developing, high-income, and Belt Road initiative countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(3), 6758-6785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22675-9
• Kuznets, S. (2019). Economic growth and income inequality. In The gap between rich and poor (pp. 25-37). Routledge.
• Liu, C., Jiang, Y., & Xie, R. (2019). Does income inequality facilitate carbon emission reduction in the US? Journal of Cleaner Production, 217, 380-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.242
• Im K., Pesaran, M., & Shin, R. (2003). Testing for unit roots in heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics, 115, 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(03)00092-7
• Love, I., & Zicchino, L. (2006). Financial development and dynamic investment behavior: Evidence from panel VAR. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 46(2), 190-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2005.11.007
• Milanovic, B. (2002). True world income distribution, 1988 and 1993: First calculation based on household surveys alone. The Economic Journal, 112(476), 51-92. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.0j673
• Ogede, J. S., Oduola, M. O., & Tiamiyu, H. O. (2024). Income inequality and carbon dioxide (CO2) in sub-Saharan Africa countries: The moderating role of financial inclusion and institutional quality. Environment Development and Sustainability, 26(7), 18385-18409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03393-9
• Padhan, H., Haouas, I., Sahoo, B., & Heshmati, A. (2019). What matters for environmental quality in the Next Eleven Countries: Economic growth or income inequality? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 23129-23148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05568-2
• Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 27, 265–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951
• Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Harvard University Press.
• Ravallion, M., Heil, M., & Jalan, J. (2000). Carbon emissions and income inequality. Oxford Economic Papers, 52(4), 651-669. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/52.4.651
• Safar, W. (2022). Income inequality and CO2 emissions in France: Does income inequality indicator matter? Journal of Cleaner Production, 370, 133457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133457
• Schor, J. B. (1998). The overspent American: Upscaling, downshifting and the new consumer.
• Sigmund, M., & Ferstl, R. (2021). Panel vector autoregression in R with the package panelvar. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 80, 693-720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2019.01.001
• Sims, C. A. (1980). Macroeconomics and reality. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 1-48.
• Smith, V., Leybourne, S., Kim, T. H., & Newbold, P. (2004). More powerful panel unit root tests with an application to the mean reversion in real exchange rates. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 19, 147–170. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.723
• Starr, J., Nicolson, C., Ash, M., Markowitz, E. M., & Moran, D. (2023). Assessing US consumers' carbon footprints reveals outsized impact of the top 1%. Ecological Economics, 205, 107698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107698
• Sylwester, K. (2005). Foreign direct investment, growth and income inequality in less developed countries. International Review of Applied Economics, 19, 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/02692170500119748
• Teng, Y., Cox, A., & Chatziantoniou, I. (2021). Environmental degradation, economic growth and tourism development in Chinese regions. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12567-9
• Torras, M., & Boyce, J. (1998). Income, inequality, and pollution: A reassessment of the environmental Kuznets curve. Ecological Economics, 25, 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(97)00177-8
• Uddin, M. M., Mishra, V., & Smyth, R. (2020). Income inequality and CO2 emissions in the G7, 1870–2014: Evidence from non-parametric modelling. Energy Economics, 88, 104780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.104780
• United Nations. (2016). Paris Agreement. UN: New York City, United States. Retrieved at http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf
• Uzar, U., & Eyuboglu, K. (2023). Does income inequality increase the ecological footprint in the US: Evidence from FARDL test? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(4), 9514-9529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22844
• Wan, G., Wang, C., Wang, J., & Zhang, X. (2022). The income inequality-CO2 emissions nexus: Transmission mechanisms. Ecological Economics, 195, 107360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107360
• Wang, Q., Li, L., & Li, R. (2023). Uncovering the impact of income inequality and population aging on carbon emission efficiency: An empirical analysis of 139 countries. Science of The Total Environment, 857, 159508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159508
• Wu, R., & Xie, Z. (2020). Identifying the impacts of income inequality on CO2 emissions: Empirical evidences from OECD countries and non-OECD countries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 277, 123858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123858
• Qu, B., & Zhang, Y. (2011). Effect of income distribution on the environmental Kuznets curve. Pacific Economic Review, 16(3), 349-370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0106.2011.00552
• Yang, Y., Yang, X., Xiao, Z., & Liu, Z. (2023). Digitalization and environmental performance: An empirical analysis of Chinese textile and apparel industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 382, 135338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135338
• Zhang, C., & Zhao, W. (2014). Panel estimation for income inequality and CO2 emissions: A regional analysis in China. Applied Energy, 136, 382-392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.048