An Assessment of the Hittite and Mycenaean Commercial Relations Issue through Supply and Demand Balances

Öz

Th e fact that the Mycenaean pottery is almost completely absent in the Central Anatolia and Cilicia region in the Late Bronze Age is the diff erent parts of a whole that cannot be explained by a single factor. Th ese components must be including diff erent determinants such as regional power balances, the role of the cultural characteristics of diff erent regions in the supply and demand balance, the limited production and the target market. It is seen that some of the dilemmas are found especially when the Hittites are to be explained in the axis of the idea of an embargo which was prevented by the Mycenaean merchants from entering the hinterland. As the Hittite and Mycenaean kingdoms are seen to have carried out a limited number of royal gift exchange, it is also possible to assert that there were also some people who had similar roles in bringing luxurious objects into the lands of the Hittite and Mycenae. In every region where the Hittite authority was strongly felt, it can be seen that Mycenaean commercial goods were not “invisible” and that direct or indirect commercial activities continued. A distinction that we should not overlook, perhaps, is that the Mycenaean did not adopt the market that reached Central Anatolia through Cilicia and that the markets already existing for the perfumed olive oil they produced on the coasts of Greece, the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia may be considered to be suff icient for them. In this context, the products of Mycenae, Th ebes and Pylos, which reached to the markets in the East Mediterranean, directed according to the requests of the palaces, such as ivory, as well as various exotic objects and their requirements

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Mycenaeans,Hittites,Trade,Pottery,Trade Embargo

Hitit ve Miken Ticari İlişkileri Sorunsalının Arz ve Talep Dengeleri Üzerinden Bir Değerlendirmesi

Öz

Miken seramiğinin Geç Tunç Çağı’nda Orta Anadolu’da ve Kilikia bölgesinde yok denecek kadar az sayıda ele geçmesi tek bir etken ile açıklanamayacak bir bütünün farklı sarmallarıdır. Bu sarmalın içerisinde bölgesel güç dengeleri, farklı bölgelerin kültürel özelliklerinin arz ve talep dengesindeki şekillendirici rolü, sınırlı üretim ve hedef pazar gibi farklı etkenler yer alıyor olmalıdır. Hitit ve Miken krallıklarının sınırlı bir sayıda krali hediyeleşme içerisinde bulunduğu görülürken, bununla birlikte Hitit ve Miken topraklarına taşınan lüks objelerin getirilmesinde benzer rollere sahip kişilerin bulunduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Özellikle Hititlerin Miken tüccarların hinterlandına girişini engellediği “muhtemel bir ambargo” fikri üzerinde konu açıklanmaya çalışıldığında ise bazı açmazların bulunduğu görülmektedir. Hitit otoritesinin güçlü olarak hissedildiğiher bölgede Miken ticari mallarının “görünmez” olmadığı doğrudan ya da dolaylı ticari aktivitelerin sürdürülmekte olduğu görülebilmektedir. Gözden kaçırmamamız gereken bir ayrım ise belki de Mikenlerin Kilikia üzerinden Orta Anadolu’ya ulaşan pazarı benimsememiş olmaları ve Yunanistan, Ege Adaları ve Batı Anadolu kıyılarında üretmiş oldukları kokulu zeytinyağı için mevcut pazarların kendilerine yetecek bir kapsamda olmasından da kaynaklandığı düşünülebilmektedir. Bu bağlamda Mikenlerin Doğu Akdeniz’deki pazarlara ulaşan ürünleri Mikenai, Teb, Pylos gibi sarayların isteklerine bağlı olarak fildişi gibi çeşitli egzotik objelerin elde edilme gerekliliklerine göre yönlendirilmiş olmalıdır

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Mikenler, Hititler, Ticaret, Seramik, Ticari Ambargo.

Kaynakça

1. Aravantinos 2008 Aravantinos, V., “Mycenaean Th ebes”, Ed. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, J.M. Evans, Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., 279-288, New Haven and London.
2. Bass, Th rockmorton, Taylor, Hennessy, Shulman, Buchholz 1967
3. Bass, G., Th rockmorton, P., Taylor, P., Hennessy, J.B., Shulman, A.R., Buchholz, H.G., “Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 57/8, 1-177.
4. Beckman, Bryce, Cline 2011 Beckman, G., Bryce, T., Cline, E., Th e Ahhiyawa Texts. Atlanta.
5. Benter 2010 Benter, M. “Milas’taki Pilavtepe Miken oda mezarı”, T.T.K., Belleten, 270, 343- 354.
6. Boysal 1969 Boysal, Y. Katalog Der Vasen im Museum in Bodrum I, MykenischProtogeometrisch, Ankara.
7. Blackwell 2014 Blackwell, N.G., “Making the Lion Gate Relief at Mycenae: Tool Marks and Foreign Infl uence”, American Journal of Archaeology 118/3, 451-488.
8. Bryce 1989a Bryce T., “Ahhiyawans and Mycenaeans—An Anatolian Viewpoint”. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 8, 297-310.

9. Bryce 1899b Bryce, T., “Th e Nature of Mycenaean Involvement in Western Anatolia”, Historia 38, 1-21.
10. Bryce 1998 Bryce, T., Th e Kingdom of the Hittites, Oxford.
11. Bryce 2002 Bryce, T., Life and Society in the Hittite World, Oxford.
12. Bryce 2003 Bryce, T., “Relations between Hatti and Ahhiyawa in the Last Decades of the Bronze Age”. Ed. G. Beckman R. Beal G. McMahon. Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoff ner Jr. on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, 59-72, Indiana.
13. Bryce 2013 Bryce, T., “Anatolian States”. Ed. P.F. Bang, W. Scheidel. Th e Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, 161- 179, New York – Oxford.
14. Bunimovitz, Lederman, 2011 Bunimovitz, S., Lederman, Z., “Canaanite Resistance: Th e Philistines and Beth-Shemesh—A Case Study from Iron Age I”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 334, 37-51.
15. Büyükkolancı 2008 Büyükkolancı, M. “Selçuk Ayasuluk Tepesi (Eski Efes) “Appasas” mı?”, Batı Anadolu ve Doğu Akdeniz Geç Tunç Çağı Kültürleri Üzerine Yeni Araştırmalar, A.Erkanal-Öktü, S. Günel ve U. Deniz (eds.), Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayını, 41-55, Ankara.
16. Caubet 2008 Caubet, A., “Vitreous Materials”. Ed. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, J.M. Evans. Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., 419- 433 New Haven and London.
17. Cline 1991a Cline, E.H., A Possible Hittite Embargo against the Mycenaeans”, Historia 40, 1-9.
18. Cline 1991b Cline, E.H. “Hittite Objects in the Bronze Age Aegean”, Anatolian Studies XLI, 133-144.
19. Cline 1993 Cline, E.H., “Contact and Trade or Colonization? Egypt and the Aegean in the 14th-13th Centuries B.C.”, Minos XXV-XXVI, 7-36.
20. Cline 1994 Cline, E.H., Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International Trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean, Oxford.
21. Cline 1999 Cline, E.H., “Th e Nature of the Economic Relations of Crete with Egypt and the Near East during the Late Bronze Age”, Ed. L. Shaler J. Cowey O. Hoover. From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders: Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete, 115-144, Stuttgart.
22. Cline 2007 Cline, E.H., “Rethinking Mycenaean International Trade with Egypt and the Near East”, Ed. M.L. Galaty, W.A. Parkinson. Rethinking Mycenaean Palaces: New Interpretations of an Old Idea. Second Revised and Expanded edition, 190-200, Los Angeles.
23. Dabney 2007 Dabney, M., “Marketing Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant” Ed. P.P. Betancourt, M.C. Nelson, H. Williams, Krinoi Kai Limenes: Studies in Honor of Joseph and Maria Shaw. INSTAP Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory), 191-198.
24. Eriksson 2007 Eriksson, K.O., Using Cypriot Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware to Establish Cultural And Chronological Synchronisms During the Late Bronze Age”, Ed. I. Hein. Th e lustrous wares of Late Bronze Age Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean. Papers of a Conference, Vienna 5th-6th of November 2004, 61-70, Wien.
25. Erkanal 2008 Erkanal, H., “Geç Tunç Çağı’nda Liman Tepe”, Batı Anadolu ve Doğu Akdeniz Geç Tunç Çağı Kültürleri Üzerine Yeni Araştırmalar, A.ErkanalÖktü, S. Günel ve U. Deniz (eds.), Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayını, Ankara, 92-100.
26. Genz 2004 Genz, H., “Eine Mykenische Scherbe aus Boğazköy”, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 77-84.
27. Genz 2011 Genz, H., “Foreign Contacts of the Hittites”, Ed. H. Genz and D.P. Mielke, Insights into Hittite history and archaeology, 301-332, Walpole.
28. Goetze 1967 Goetze, A., Die Annalen Des Mursilis, Darmstadt.
29. Goetze 1969 Goetze, A., “Hittite Rituals, Incantations, and Description of Festivals”, Ed. J.B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement, 346-361, Princeton.
30. Graziadio 2011 Graziadio, G., “Cretan Perfumed Oils at Enkomi (Cyprus) in the 13th Century B.C.?”, Ed. W. Gauss, M. Lindblom, R.A.K. Smith, J. Wright, Our Cups Are Full: Pottery and Society in the Aegean Bronze Age, Papers Presented to Jeremy B. Rutter on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, 88-96, Oxford.
31. Guzowska, Yasur-Landau 2007 Guzowska, M., Yasur-Landau, A., “Th e Mycenaean Pottery fromTel Aphek: Chronology and Patterns of Trade”, Bietak, M. and Czerny, E. (eds.) Th e Synchronization of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium b.c. III. Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd Euro Conference Vienna, 28th of May–1st of June 2003, 537-545, Vienna.
32. Guzowska, Yasur-Landau 2009 Guzowska, M., Yasur-Landau, A., “Th e Mycenaean Pottery”, Ed. Y. Gadot E. Yadin, Aphek-Antipatris II: Th e Remains on the Acropolis, 342–361, Tel Aviv.
33. Gültekin, Baran 1964 Gültekin H., Baran, M., “Selçuk Tepesinde Bulunan Miken Mezarı”, Türk Arkeoloji Dergisi 13/2, 122-133.
34. Günel 1999 Günel, S., Panaztepe II: M.Ö. 2. Bine Tarihlendirilen Panaztepe Seramiğinin Batı Anadolu ve Ege Arkeolojisindeki Yeri ve Önemi, Ankara.
35. Günel 2015 Günel, S. “Çine-Tepecik: New Contributions on Late Bronze Age Cultures in Western Anatolia”, Nostoi: Indigenous Culture, Migration, and Integration in the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia During the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, Stampolidis, N., Maner, Ç., Kopanias, K. (eds.), Koc University Press, 627-646, İstanbul.
36. Gür 2014 Gür, B., Miken Uygarlığı ve Ahhiyawa, İstanbul.
37. Gür 2018 Gür, B., “M.Ö. II. Binyılda Ege Dünyası’nın Kuzey Suriye Kıyılar İle İlişkileri: Deniz Ticareti ve Yolculuklar”, Ed. B. Gökçe, P. Pınarcık, Eski Yakındoğu’da Ulaşım Üzerine Yazılar / Articles on Transportation in Ancient Near East, 272-285, Ankara.
38. Güterbock 1968 Güterbock, H.G., “Oil Plants in Hittite Anatolia”, JAOS 88, 66-71.
39. Hadjisavvas 2003 Hadjisavvas S., “Th e Production and Diff usion of Olive Oil in the Mediterranean, ca. 1500-500 BC”, Ploes... Sea Routes... Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th-6th c. BC. Proceedings of the International Symposium held at Rethymnon, Crete, September 29th-October 2nd 2002, Stampolidis, Nicholas Chr. and Vassos Karageorghis (eds.), University of Crete and the A. G. Leventis Foundation, 117-123, Athens.
40. Haldane 1993 Haldane, C., “Direct evidence for organic cargoes in the Late Bronze Age”, WA 24/3, 348-360.
41. Haskell 1985 Haskell, H., “Th e Origin of the Aegean Stirrup Jar and its Earliest Evolution and Distribution (MB III-LB I)”, American Journal of Archaeology 89, 221- 229.
42. Haskell 2004 Haskell, H., “Wanax to Wanax: Regional Trade Patterns in Mycenaean Crete”, Ed. A.P. Chapin, Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr., 151-160, Athens.
43. Hoff ner 1995 Hoff ner, H.A., “Oil in Hittite Texts”. Th e Biblical Archaeologist 58/2, Anatolian Archaeology: A Tribute to Peter Neve, 108-114.
44. Hoff ner 1998 Hoff ner, H.A., Hittite Myths, Atlanta.
45. Hoff ner 2003 Hoff ner, H.A., “Daily Life among the Hittites”, Ed. R. Averbeck, M. W. Chavalas, D. B. Weisberg, Life and Culture in the Ancient Near East, 95– 118, Bethesda.
46. Hoff ner 2009 Hoff ner, H.A., Letters from the Hittite Kingdom, Atlanta.
47. Huxley 1960 Huxley, G.L., Achaeans and Hittites, Oxford.
48. Jung 2007 Jung, R., “Tell Kazel And Th e Mycenaean Contacts With Amurru (Syria)”, Ed. M. Bietak, E. Czerny, Th e Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. III: Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd EuroConference, Vienna, 28th of May – 1st of June 2003, 551-570, Vienna.
49. Jung 2018 Jung, R., “Mycenaean Pottery in coastal Syria”, Ed. L. Badre, E. Capet, B. Vitale, Tel Kazel Au Bronze Recent Etudes ceramiques, 47-51, Beyrouth.
50. Jones, Tonlinson 2009 Jones, R.E., Tomlinson, J.T., “Chemical analysis of Mycenaean pottery from the Menelaion and its vicinity”, Ed. H.W. Catling. Sparta: Menelaion I. Th e Bronze Age, British School at Athens Supplementary volume 45, 147-169.
51. Kardamaki, Day, Tenconi, Maran, Papadimitriou 2016 Kardamaki, E., Day, P.M., Tenconi, M., Maran, J., Papadimitriou, A., “Transport Stirrup Jars in Late Mycenaean Tiryns: Maritime Transport Containers and commodity movement in political context”, Maritime Transport Containers in the Bronze-Iron Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean, 145-167, Uppsala.
52. Kelder 2009 Kelder, J., “Royal Gift Exchange Between Mycenae and Egypt: Olives as “Greeting Gifts” in the Late Bronze Age. Eastern Mediterranean”, American Journal of Archaeology 113/3, 339-352.
53. Kelder 2010 Kelder, J., “Egyptian Interest in Mycenaean Greece”, Jaarbericht, Ex Oriente Lux 42, 125-140.
54. Knappet, Kilikoglou, Steele, Stern 2005 Knappet, C., Kilikoglou, V., Steele, V., Stern, B., “Th e Circulation and Consumption of Red Lustrous Wheelmade Ware: Petrographic, Chemical and Residue Analysis”, Anatolian Studies 55, 25-59.
55. Koehl 1999 Koehl, R.B., “Th e Creto-Mycenaean Earrings of Queen Nofretari”, Ed. P.P. Betancourt, V. Karageorghis, R. Laff ineur, W.D. Niemeier, Meletamata: Studies in Honor of Malcolm H. Weiner (Aegaeum 20), 421-426, Austin and Liège.
56. Koehl 2008 Koehl, R.B., “Aegean Interactions with the Near East and Egypt During the Late Bronze Age”, Ed. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, J.M. Evans, Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., 270-273, New Haven and London.
57. Kozal 2003 Kozal, E., “Analysis of the distribution patterns of Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware, Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery in Anatolia, in the 15th–13th
58. Centuries BC”, Ed. B. Fischer, H. Genz, E Jean, K. Köroğlu, Identifying Changes: Th e Transition from Bronze to Iron Ages in Anatolia and its Neighbouring Regions Proceedings of the International Workshop İstanbul, November 8-9, 2002, 65-78, İstanbul.
59. Kozal 2007 Kozal, E., “Regionality in Anatolia between 15th and 13th centuries BC: Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware versus. Mycenaean Pottery”, Th e Lustrous Wares of Late Bronze Age Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean, Viyana, 5-6 Kasım 2004, 141-148.
60. Kozal 2010 Kozal, E., “Cypriot Pottery”. Ed. K.A. Yener. Tell Atchana, Ancient Alalakh Volume 1 Th e 2003-2004 Excavation Seasons. (2010) 67-80, İstanbul.
61. Kozal 2015 Kozal, E., “A Discussion of the Origin and the Distribution Patterns of Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware”, Ed. D. Beyer, O. Henry, A. Tibet. Anatolia: Cultural Connections across the Taurus and Amanus Mountains, 53-64, İstanbul.
62. Lehmann 2013 Lehmann, G., “Aegean-Style Pottery in Syria and Lebanon During Iron Age I”, Ed. A.E. Killebrew, G. Lehmann, Th e Philistines and Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology, 265-328, Atlanta.
63. Lolos 2003 Lolos, Y.G., “Cypro-Mycenaean Relations ca. 1200 BC: Point Iria and the Gulf of Argos and Old Salamis in the Saronic Gulf ”, Ploes... Sea Routes... Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th-6th c. BC. Proceedings of the International Symposium held at Rethymnon, Crete, September 29thOctober 2nd 2002, Stampolidis, Nicholas Chr. and Vassos Karageorghis (eds.), University of Crete and the A. G. Leventis Foundation, 101-116, Athens.
64. Lupack 2014 Lupack, S., “Off erings for the Wanax in the Fr Tablets: Ancestor Worship and the Maintenance of Power in Mycenaean Greece”, Ed. D. Nakassis, J. Gulizio, S.A. James, KE-RA-ME-JA Studies Presented to Cynyhia W. Shelmerdine, 163-178, Philadelphia.
65. Malamat 1971 Malamat, A., “Syro-Palestinian Destinations in a Mari Tin Inventory”, Israel Exploration Journal 21/1, 31-38.
66. Manuelli 2009 Manuelli, F., “Local Imitations and Foreign Imported Goods. Some problems and new questions on Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware in the light of the new excavations of the Southern Step Trench at Yumuktepe/Mersin”, Altoriental. Forsch., Akademie Verlag 36/2, 251-267.
67. Mee 1978 Mee, C., “Aegean Trade and Settlement in Anatolia in the second millenium B.C.”. Anatolian Studies 28, 121-156.
68. Mee 2010 Mee, C., “Death and Burial”, Ed. E.H. Cline. Th e Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean, 277-290, Oxford.
69. Mommsen, Beiera, Diehl, Podzuweit 1992 Mommsen, H., Beiera, T., Diehl, U., Podzuweit, Ch., “Provenance Determination of Mycenaean Sherds Found in Tell el Amarna by Neutron Activation Analysis”, Journal of Archaeological Science 19, 295-302.
70. Mommsen, Beiera, Hein 2002 Mommsen, H., Beiera, T., Hein, A., “A Complete Chemical Grouping of the Berkeley Neutron Activation Analysis Data on Mycenaean Pottery”, Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 613–637.
71. Mommsen, Maran 2000-2001 Mommsen, H., Maran, J., “Production places of some Mycenaean Pictorial vessels the contribution of chemical pottery analysis”, Opuscula Atheniensia 45-46, 95-106.
72. Moran 1992 Moran, W.L., Th e Amarna Letters, Baltimore and London.
73. Mountjoy 1997 Mountjoy, P.A., “Local Mycenaean Pottery at Troia”, Studia Troica 7, 259- 267.
74. Mountjoy 1998 Mountjoy, P.A., “Th e East Aegean–West Anatolian Interface in the Late Bronze Age: Mycenaeans and the Kingdom of Ahhiyawa”, Anatolian Studies 48, 33-67.
75. Mountjoy, Mommsen 2001 Mountjoy, P.A., Mommsen, H., “Mycenaean Pottery from Qantir-Piramesse, Egypt”, Th e Annual of the British School at Athens 96, 123-155.
76. Müller-Karpe 2008 Müller-Karpe, A., “Th e Hittite Empire”, Ed. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, J.M. Evans, Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., 170-183, New Haven and London.
77. Nosch 2014 Nosch, M.L., “Th e Aegean Wool Economies of the Bronze Age”, Textile Society of America 2014 Biennial Symposium Proceedings: New Directions: Examining the Past, Creating the Future, 1–14, Los Angeles.
78. Öniz 2019 Öniz, H. “A new Bronze Age shipwreck with ingots in the west of Antalyapreliminary results”, Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 151/1, 3-14.
79. Özdaş, Hirschfeld, Bass, Pulak 2012 Özdaş, H., Hirschfeld, N., Bass, G.F., Pulak, C., “2010 Yılı Gelidonya Batığı Kazısı”, 33. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı III, Ankara, 115-126.
80. Özgünel 1983 Özgünel, C., “Batı Anadolu ve İçerlerinde Miken Etkinlikleri”, Belleten XLVII, 697-743.
81. Özkan, Erkanal 1999 Özkan, T., Erkanal, H., Tahtalı barajı kurtarma kazısı, İzmir.
82. Pappas 2011 Pappas, I., “Exchange of Ideas in the Eastern Mediterranean during the 14th and 13th centuries BC: Th e Case of Perfumed Oil Use and Ideology”, Proceedings of the International Conference at the Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo, 25th to 29th October 2008, 495-510, Leuven-ParisWalpole.
83. Parkinson, Nakassis, Galaty 2013 Parkinson, W., Nakassis, D,. Galaty, M.L. “Crafts, Specialists, and Markets in Mycenaean Greece Introduction”, American Journal of Archaeology 117, 413-422.
84. Pavuk 2018 Pavuk, P., “Deir el-Medina. A Mycenaean Stirrup Jar Fragment from TT 357”, Ed. J. Mynářová, P. Onderka, P. Pavúk. Th e Deir el-Medina and Jaroslav Černý Collections II: Pottery, 167-178, Prague.
85. Pulak 2005 Pulak, C. “Who Were the Mycenaean aboard the Uluburun Ship?”, Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and EasternMediterranean: Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference. Athens, Italian School of Archaeology, 14–18 April 2004, Laff ineur,R. and Greco, E. (eds.), 295-310, Liege.
86. Pulak 2006 C. Pulak, “Uluburun Batığı”, Uluburun Gemisi 3000 Yıl Önce Dünya Ticareti, Ü. Yalçın, C. Pulak, R. Slotta (ed.), 57-104, Bochum.
87. Robkin 1979 Robkin, A.L.H., “Th e Agricultural Year, the Commodity SA and the Linen Industry of Mycenaean Pylos”, American Journal of Archaeology 83/4, 469- 474.
88. Salavert 2008 Salavert, A. “Olive cultivation and oil production in Palestine during the early Bronze Age (3500–2000 b.c.): the case of Tel Yarmouth, Israel”, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17, 53-61.
89. Schofield, Parkinson 1994 Schofield, L., Parkinson, R.B., “Of Helmets and Heretics: A Possible Egyptian Representation of Mycenaean Warriors on a Papyrus from El-Amarna”, Th e Annual of the British School at Athens 89, 157-170.
90. Schoop 2013 Schoop, U.D., “Gündelik Hayatın ve Ayrıcalığın Nesneleri: Hitit Çanak Çömleği – Objects of Daily Life, Objects of Distinction: Th e Study of Hittite Pottery”, Hititler Bir Anadolu İmparatorluğu, 356-371, İstanbul.
91. Shelmerdine 2006 Shelmerdine, C., “Mycenaean Palatial Administration”, Ed. S. DegerJalkotzy, I.S. Lemos. Ancient Greece: From the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer, 73-86, Edinburgh.
92. Sherratt 1999 Sherratt, S., “E Pur si muove: pots markets and values in the second millennium Mediterranean”, Ed. J.P. Crielaard, V. Stissi, G.J.V. Wijngaarden, Th e Complex Past of Pottery: Production, Circulation and Consumption of Mycenaean and Greek Pottery (sixteenth to Early Fifth Centuries BC) : Proceedings of the ARCHON international conference, held in Amsterdam, 8-9 November 1996, 163-211, Amsterdam.
93. Singer 1999 Singer, I., “A Political History of Ugarit”. Ed. W.G.E Watson, N. Wyatt, Handbook of Ugarit Studies, 603-732, London.
94. Singer 2013 Singer, I., “Th e Great Scribe Taki-Sarruma”, Ed. G. Beckman, R. Beal, G. McMahon. Hittite studies in honor of Harry A. Hoff ner Jr. on the occasion of his 65th birthday, 341-348, Indiana.
95. Sommer 1932 Sommer, F. Die Ahijava-Urkunden, Münich.
96. South, Russell 1993 South, A.K., Russell, P.J., “Mycenaean Pottery and Social Hierarchy at Kalavassos-Ayios Dhimitrios, Cyprus”, Ed. C. Zerner, P. Zerner, J. Winder. Proceedings of the International Conference Wace and Blegen: Pottery As Evidence for Trade in the Aegean Bronze Age 1939–1989 Held at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens December 2–3 1989, 303- 310, Amsterdam.
97. Steele 1998 Steele, V.J., “Th e Social Impact of Mycenaean Imported Pottery in Cyprus”, BSA 93, 285-296.
98. Steele 1999 Steele, V.J., “Wine Kraters and Chariots: Th e Mycenaean Pictorial Style Reconsidered”, Ed. P.P. Betancourt, V. Karageorghis, R. Laff ineur, W.D.
99. Niemeier, Meletemata: Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener As He Enters His 65th Year (Aegaeum 20), 421-426, Liege.
100. Steele, Stern 2017 Steele, V.J., Stern, B., “Red Lustrous Wheelmade ware: Analysis of organic residues in Late Bronze Age trade and storage vessels from the easter Mediterranean”, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 16, 641–657.
101. Stockhammer 2014 Stockhammer, P.W., “Functions and meanings of Aegean-type pottery at Tel Beth-Shean”, Ed. Y. Galanakis, T. Wilkinson, J. Bennet, ΑΘΥΡΜΑΤΑ Critical Essays on the Archaeology of the Eastern Mediterranean in Honour of E. Susan Sherratt, 207-222, Oxford.
102. Stubbings 1951 Stubbings, F., Mycenaean Pottery from the Levant, Cambridge.
103. Taş 2012 Taş, İ., “Hitit Kralı IV.Tudhaliya’nın Suriye Politikası”. 38. İCANAS Uluslararası Asya ve Kuzey Afrika Çalışmaları Kongresi Bildiriler 10- 15.09.2007 Ankara/Türkiye, 3029-3038, Ankara.
104. Tournavitou 1995 Tournavitou, I., “Th e ‘Ivory Houses’ At Mycenae”, Th e British School at Athens. Supplementary 24, 1-341.
105. Uchitel 1988 Uchitel, A., “Th e archives of Mycenaean Greece and the ancient Near East”, Ed. M. Heltzer, E. Lipiński. Society and Economy in the Eastern Mediterranean (c. 1500-1000 B.C.), 19-30, Leuven.
106. Uchitel 2016 Uchitel, A., “Ships and shipment in Minoan Linear A”, Minos 39, 9-16. Ünal 1991
107. Ünal A. (1991). “Two Peoples on Both Sides of the Aegean Sea: Did the Achaeans and Hittites Know Each Other?”, Ed. T. Mikasa, O. Harrassowitz, Essays on Ancient Anatolian and Syrian Studies in the 2nd and 1st Millennium B.C. Bulletin of the Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan 4, 16-44, Weisabaden.
108. Ünal 2003 Ünal, A., Hititler devrinde Anadolu Kitap 2, İstanbul
109. Wijngaarden 1999 Wijngaarden, G.J.V., “Production, Circulation and Consumption of Mycenaean Pottery (Sixteenth to Twelfth Centuries B.C.)”, Ed. J. P.
110. Crielaard, V. Stissi, and G. J. van Wijngaarden, Th e Complex Past of Pottery: Production, Circulation and Consumption of Mycenaean and Greek Pottery [Sixteenth to Early Fifth Centuries B.C., 21-47, Amsterdam.
111. Wijngaarden 2002 Wijngaarden, G.J.V., Use and Appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy (1600-1200 BC), Amsterdam.
112. Wijngaarden 2005 Wijngaarden, G.J.V., “Mycenaean Heirlooms, Antiques and Souvenirs in the Levant and Cyprus”, Ed. R. Laff ineur, E. Greco, Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and EasternMediterranean: Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference. Athens, Italian School of Archaeology, 14–18 April 2004, 405-414, Liege.
113. Wijngaarden 2008 Wijngaarden, G.J.V., “Th e relevance of authenticity: Mycenaean-type pottery in the Mediterranean”, Ed. P. F. Biehl, Y. Y. Rassamakin. Import and imitation in archaeology, Schriften des Zentrums für Archäologie und Kulturgeschichte des Schwarzmeerraumes, 125-145, Beier & Beran.
114. Wijngaarden 2012 Wijngaarden, G.J.V., “Trade goods reproducing merchants? Th e materiality of mediterranean Late Bronze Age exchange”, Materiality and social practice: transformative capacities of intercultural encounters, 61-72, Oxford.
115. Wilson 1969 Wilson, J.A., “Egyptian Oracles and Prophecies”, Ed. J.B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement, 441- 449, Princeton.
116. Wiener 1991 Wiener, M., “Th e Nature and Control of Minoan Foreign Trade”. Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean, Papers Presented at the Conference held at Rewley House, Oxford (December 1989), Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90, 325–350.
117. Wiener 2007 Wiener, M., “Homer and History: Old Questions, New Evidence”, EPOS: Reconsidering Greek Epic and Aegean Bronze Age”, Ed. S. Morris, R. Laff ineur, EPOS: Reconsidering Greek Epic and Aegean Bronze Age Archaeology, Proceedings of the 11th International Aegean Conference, Los Angeles, UCLA-Th e J. Paul Getty Villa (20–23 April 2006) Aegaeum 28, 3-33, Liege.
118. Van Soldt 1995 Van Soldt, W.H., “Ugarit: A Second-Millenium Kingdom on the Mediterranean Coast”. Ed. J. M. Sasson, Civilizations of the Ancient Near East II, 1255-1266, New York.
119. Yakar 2001 Yakar, J., “Th e Socio-Economie Organization of the Rural Sector in Kizzuwatna - An Archaeological Assessment”, La Cilicie : espaces et pouvoirs locaux (IIe millénaire av. J.-C. – IVe siècle ap. J.-C.). Actes de la Table Ronde d’Istanbul, 2-5 novembre 1999, 37-46, Paris.
120. Yener 2017 Yener, A.K., “Cult and Ritual at Late Bronze Age II Alalakh: Hybridity and Power Under Hittite Administration”, Ed. A. Mouton, HITTITOLOGY TODAY:Studies on Hittite and Neo-Hittite Anatolia in Honor of Emmanuel Laroche’s 100th Birthday, 215-224, İstanbul.
121. Zuckerman, Ben-Shlomo, Mountjoy, Mommsen 2010 Zuckerman, S., Ben-Shlomo, D., Mountjoy, P., Mommsen, H., “A provenance study of Mycenaean pottery from Northern Israel”, Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 409-416.