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Some Ethical Concerns About End of Life: A Paradigm Shift From Ars Moriendi to Medicalized Death

Yıl 2023, , 6 - 21, 15.06.2023
https://doi.org/10.35415/sirnakifd.1230066

Öz

Medicine has several goals, including preventing and curing diseases, relieving pain and suffering, and promoting and maintaining the mental and physical health of the person from birth to death. Thanks to medical and technological developments in the last century, medicine has started to provide the opportunity to live longer. However, whether a longer life leads to a better life is debatable. Before these developments, death was regarded as a natural and inevitable end and mostly handled with religious approaches, such as Ars moriendi. However, these medical and technological advances have caused a misleading perception that medicine has the power to achieve every desired outcome. Under the influence and pressure of this misleading situation, people began to demand aggressive treatments, like resuscitation, mechanical ventilation, artificial nutrition and hydration, and chemotherapy. Of course, these medical interventions can be lifesaving for some patients. However, in the case of incurable conditions, such as metastatic cancers, Alzheimer's disease, or advanced organ failure, aggressive treatment methods often fail to produce promising results; on the contrary, they place a variety of burdens on patients, families, and society, as significantly reducing patients' quality of life, causing unrealistic hopes, and exhausting limited health resources. In this context, the article aims to briefly examine the change in people's perception of death and the dying process and to evaluate its de facto and ethical impacts. This study shows that medical and technological breakthroughs have significantly changed people's comprehension, acceptance, and perception of death, which made death no longer a natural end, but a medical failure. In other words, a medical interventions-based death, called medicalized death, has replaced a religion-based death. As a result of this change, the social, spiritual, and emotional aspects of death and the dying process are ignored for the sake of excessive and ineffective medical interventions. This situation brings about a critical shift in where, how, and when to die, and produces various ethical problems regarding the principles of respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, and justice. The present article demonstrates that most people want to die at home and spend their last days with their families. However, due to medical interventions, many die in healthcare facilities while on medical treatments and machines. In this context, this study recommends home-based palliative care services encompassing social, emotional, and spiritual support instead of aggressive medical interventions at end-of-life. Home-based palliative care will enable individuals to spend the last days of their lives at home with their loved ones, receive emotional and spiritual support, and prevent themselves, their families, and society from unnecessary and futile medical expenses. In conclusion, in light of the principles of respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, and justice, in end-of-life issues, medicine should focus on improving patients' quality of life, providing patients with social, emotional, and spiritual support, and ensuring that patients have the opportunity to spend their last days of life with their family members, which can most suitable be achieved through home-based palliative care.

Kaynakça

  • Aries, Philippe. Western Attitudes Toward Death from the Middle Ages to the Present, trans. Patricia M. Ranum. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974.
  • Beauchamp, Tom L. – Childress, James F. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  • Callahan, Daniel. “The Elderly and Dementia”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 149-160. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Callahan, Daniel. "The Goals of Medicine-Setting New Priorities". Hastings Center Report 26/6 (1996).
  • Cohen, Joachim et al. “Which Patients With Cancer Die at Home? A Study of Six European Countries Using Death Certificate Data”. Journal of Clinical Oncology 28/13 (2010), 2267-2273.
  • Curlin, Farr A. “Hospice and Palliative Medicine’s Attempt at an Art of Dying”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 47-63. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Cutler, David – Cutler, Ellen Meara. “Changes in the Age Distribution of Mortality over the 20th Century”. Accessed 8 April 2023. https://www.nber.org/papers/w8556.
  • Dugdale, Lydia S. “Dying, a Lost Art”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 3-17. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Field, David. "Palliative Medicine and the Medicalization of Death". European Journal of Cancer Care 3/2 (1994), 58-62.
  • Gawande, Atul. Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2014.
  • Imhof, Arthur E. “Ars Moriendi: How to Live and How to Die”. Historical Social Research 22/1 (1997), 191-197.
  • Jonsen, Albert R at el. Clinical Ethics: A Practical Approach to Ethical Decisions in Clinical Medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Education, 2015.
  • Kirk, Timothy W. - Mahon, Margaret M. “National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization (NHPCO) Position Statement and Commentary on the Use of Palliative Sedation in Imminently Dying Terminally Ill Patients”. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 39/5 (2010), 914-923.
  • Latham, Stephen R. “Pluralism and the “Good” Death”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 33-46. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Leget, Carlo. “Retrieving the Ars Moriendi Tradition”. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 10 (2007), 313–319.
  • Lo, Bernard. Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2020.
  • Lysaught, M. Therese. “Ritual and Practice”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale, 67-85. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Merrick, Janna C. “Death and Dying: The American Experience”. End-of-Life Decision Making: A Cross-National Study. Eds. Robert H. Blank and Janna C. Merrick. 219- 241. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2005.
  • Murphy, James M. - Silke, John. “Ars Moriendi; The Art of Dying Well – New Insights into the Molecular Pathways of Necroptotic Cell Death”. EMBO Reports 15 (2014), 155-164 Quran.com. Accessed 14 January 2023. https://quran.com.
  • Sulmasy, Daniel P et al. “Eleanor Roosevelt’s Last Days: A Bioethical Case Study”. The American Journal of Medicine 128/4 (2015), 437-440.
  • Schwarz, Benyamin - Jacquelyn, Benson. "The “medicalized death”: Dying in the Hospital". Journal of Housing for the Elderly 32/3-4 (2018), 379-430.
  • Slevin, ML et al. “Who Should Measure Quality of Life, the Doctor or the Patient?”. British Journal of Cancer 57 (1988), 109–112.
  • Temel, Jennifer S et al. “Early Palliative Care for Patients with Metastatic Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer”. The New England Journal of Medicine 363/8 (2010), 733-742.
  • Teno, Joan M. et al. “Change in End-of-Life Care for Medicare Beneficiaries: Site of Death, Place of Care, and Health Care Transitions in 2000, 2005, and 2009”. AMA 309/5 (2013), 470-477.
  • U.S. National Institute on Aging National Institutes of Health and World Health Organization. Global Health and Aging. National Institute on Aging National Institutes of Health and World Health Organization. Publication no. 11-7737, 2011.
  • Ulker, Deniz. Personal Preferences of Older People’s Family Caregivers Regarding End-of-Life Decisions. Mugla: Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Master’s Thesis, 2016.
  • The Canadian Cancer Society. Right to Care: Palliative Care for all Canadians. Canadian Cancer Society, 2016
  • The Hastings Center Report. “The Goals of Medicine: Setting New Priorities”. The Hastings Center Report 26/6 (1996), 1-27.
  • World Health Organization. “The Top 10 Causes of Death”. Accessed 5 January 2023. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index2.html.
  • Yiting, Li et al. “End-of-Life Care in China: A View from Beijing”. End-of-Life Decision Making: A Cross-National Study. Eds. Robert H. Blank and Janna C. Merrick. 33-59. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2005.

Yaşam Sonuna Dair Bazı Etik Kaygılar: "Ars Moriendi'den Tıbbileştirilmiş Ölüme Bir Paradigma Değişimi

Yıl 2023, , 6 - 21, 15.06.2023
https://doi.org/10.35415/sirnakifd.1230066

Öz

Tıbbın, hastalıkları önlemek ve iyileştirmek, ağrı ve ıstırabı dindirmek ve erken ölümleri engellemek dâhil olmak üzere, doğumdan ölüme kadar kişinin ruh ve beden sağlığını geliştirmek ve sürdürmek şeklinde çeşitli amaçları bulunmaktadır. Son yüzyıldaki, tıbbi ve teknolojik gelişmeler sayesinde, tıp, daha uzun yaşama imkânı sağlamaya başlamıştır. Ancak, daha uzun yaşamın, daha iyi bir yaşam sağlayıp sağlamadığı konusu tartışmalıdır. Bahsi geçen gelişmelerden önce, ölüm, doğal ve kaçınılmaz bir son olarak kabul edilmekteydi ve çoğunlukla Ars moriendi gibi dini yaklaşımlarla ele alınmaktaydı. Fakat, söz konusu tıbbi ve teknolojik gelişmeler, tıbbın, her istenilen sonucu elde etme gücü varmış gibi yanıltıcı bir algıya yol açmıştır. Bu yanıltıcı durumun etkisi ve baskısı altında, insanlar, resüsitasyon, mekanik ventilasyon, yapay beslenme ve hidrasyon ve kemoterapi gibi agresif tedaviler talep etme yoluna gitmeye başladılar. Elbette bu tıbbi müdahaleler, bazı hastalar için hayat kurtarıcı nitelikte olabilmektedir. Ancak, metastatik kanserler, Alzheimer hastalığı veya ilerlemiş organ yetmezlikleri gibi tedavi imkânı olmayan hastalıklar durumunda, agresif tedavi yöntemleri çoğunlukla umut verici sonuçlar üretememektedir; tersine, bunlar, hastalara, ailelere ve topluma, hastaların yaşam kalitesini önemli ölçüde düşürmek, gerçek dışı umutlara neden olmak ve sınırlı sağlık kaynaklarını tüketmek şeklindeki yükler getirmektedir. Bu bağlamda, makale, insanların ölüm ve ölüm süreci algısındaki değişimi kısaca incelemeyi ve bunun fiili ve etik etkilerini değerlendirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu çalışma, tıbbi ve teknolojik alanlardaki ilerlemelerin, insanların ölümü anlama, kabul etme ve algılama biçimlerinde önemli değişikliklere yol açtığını ve bu değişikliklerin etkisiyle, ölümün artık doğal bir son değil, tıbbi bir başarısızlık olarak görülmeye başlandığını göstermektedir. Başka bir ifadeyle, tıbbileştirilmiş ölüm olarak adlandırılan, tıbbi müdahalelere dayalı bir ölüm anlayışı, din temelli bir ölüm anlayışının yerini almıştır. Bu değişimin bir sonucu olarak, ölüm ve ölüm sürecinin sosyal, manevi ve duygusal yönleri, aşırı ve sonuç doğurmayan tıbbi müdahaleler uğruna göz ardı edilmektedir. Bu durum, nerede, nasıl ve ne zaman ölüneceği konularında ciddi bir değişim meydana getirmekte ve özerkliğe saygı gösterme, zarar vermeme ve adalet ilkeleri temelinde çeşitli etik sorunlar üretmektedir. Mevcut makale, insanların çoğunluğunun evde ölmek ve hayatlarının son günlerini aile üyeleriyle birlikte geçirmek istediğini göstermektedir. Ancak agresif tıbbi müdahaleler nedeniyle, bu insanların birçoğu sağlık kuruluşlarında, tıbbi müdahalelere ve cihazlara bağlı bicimde ölmektedirler. Bu çerçevede, söz konusu bu çalışma, hayatin son döneminde, agresif tıbbi tedaviler yerine, sosyal, duygusal ve manevi desteği de kapsayan evde palyatif bakım hizmetlerini önermektedir. Evde palyatif bakım hizmetleri, bireylere, ömürlerinin son günlerini kendi evlerinde sevdikleriyle birlikte geçirmelerine, duygusal ve dinsel destek almalarına ve kendilerini, ailelerini ve toplumu gereksiz ve faydasız tıbbi masraflardan kurtarma imkânı sağlayacaktır. Sonuç olarak, yaşamın sonuna dair konularda, özerkliğe saygı, zarar vermeme ve adalet ilkeleri ışığında tıp, hastaların yaşam kalitesini iyileştirmeye, hastalara sosyal, duygusal ve manevi destek sağlamaya, hastaların hayatlarının son günlerini aile bireyleriyle birlikte geçirmelerine olanak sağlamalıdır, ki bahse konu bu amaçları sağlamanın en uygun yolu evde palyatif bakım hizmetleridir.

Kaynakça

  • Aries, Philippe. Western Attitudes Toward Death from the Middle Ages to the Present, trans. Patricia M. Ranum. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974.
  • Beauchamp, Tom L. – Childress, James F. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  • Callahan, Daniel. “The Elderly and Dementia”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 149-160. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Callahan, Daniel. "The Goals of Medicine-Setting New Priorities". Hastings Center Report 26/6 (1996).
  • Cohen, Joachim et al. “Which Patients With Cancer Die at Home? A Study of Six European Countries Using Death Certificate Data”. Journal of Clinical Oncology 28/13 (2010), 2267-2273.
  • Curlin, Farr A. “Hospice and Palliative Medicine’s Attempt at an Art of Dying”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 47-63. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Cutler, David – Cutler, Ellen Meara. “Changes in the Age Distribution of Mortality over the 20th Century”. Accessed 8 April 2023. https://www.nber.org/papers/w8556.
  • Dugdale, Lydia S. “Dying, a Lost Art”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 3-17. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Field, David. "Palliative Medicine and the Medicalization of Death". European Journal of Cancer Care 3/2 (1994), 58-62.
  • Gawande, Atul. Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2014.
  • Imhof, Arthur E. “Ars Moriendi: How to Live and How to Die”. Historical Social Research 22/1 (1997), 191-197.
  • Jonsen, Albert R at el. Clinical Ethics: A Practical Approach to Ethical Decisions in Clinical Medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Education, 2015.
  • Kirk, Timothy W. - Mahon, Margaret M. “National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization (NHPCO) Position Statement and Commentary on the Use of Palliative Sedation in Imminently Dying Terminally Ill Patients”. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 39/5 (2010), 914-923.
  • Latham, Stephen R. “Pluralism and the “Good” Death”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale. 33-46. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Leget, Carlo. “Retrieving the Ars Moriendi Tradition”. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 10 (2007), 313–319.
  • Lo, Bernard. Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2020.
  • Lysaught, M. Therese. “Ritual and Practice”. Dying in the Twenty-First Century. Ed. Lydia S. Dugdale, 67-85. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2015.
  • Merrick, Janna C. “Death and Dying: The American Experience”. End-of-Life Decision Making: A Cross-National Study. Eds. Robert H. Blank and Janna C. Merrick. 219- 241. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2005.
  • Murphy, James M. - Silke, John. “Ars Moriendi; The Art of Dying Well – New Insights into the Molecular Pathways of Necroptotic Cell Death”. EMBO Reports 15 (2014), 155-164 Quran.com. Accessed 14 January 2023. https://quran.com.
  • Sulmasy, Daniel P et al. “Eleanor Roosevelt’s Last Days: A Bioethical Case Study”. The American Journal of Medicine 128/4 (2015), 437-440.
  • Schwarz, Benyamin - Jacquelyn, Benson. "The “medicalized death”: Dying in the Hospital". Journal of Housing for the Elderly 32/3-4 (2018), 379-430.
  • Slevin, ML et al. “Who Should Measure Quality of Life, the Doctor or the Patient?”. British Journal of Cancer 57 (1988), 109–112.
  • Temel, Jennifer S et al. “Early Palliative Care for Patients with Metastatic Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer”. The New England Journal of Medicine 363/8 (2010), 733-742.
  • Teno, Joan M. et al. “Change in End-of-Life Care for Medicare Beneficiaries: Site of Death, Place of Care, and Health Care Transitions in 2000, 2005, and 2009”. AMA 309/5 (2013), 470-477.
  • U.S. National Institute on Aging National Institutes of Health and World Health Organization. Global Health and Aging. National Institute on Aging National Institutes of Health and World Health Organization. Publication no. 11-7737, 2011.
  • Ulker, Deniz. Personal Preferences of Older People’s Family Caregivers Regarding End-of-Life Decisions. Mugla: Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Master’s Thesis, 2016.
  • The Canadian Cancer Society. Right to Care: Palliative Care for all Canadians. Canadian Cancer Society, 2016
  • The Hastings Center Report. “The Goals of Medicine: Setting New Priorities”. The Hastings Center Report 26/6 (1996), 1-27.
  • World Health Organization. “The Top 10 Causes of Death”. Accessed 5 January 2023. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index2.html.
  • Yiting, Li et al. “End-of-Life Care in China: A View from Beijing”. End-of-Life Decision Making: A Cross-National Study. Eds. Robert H. Blank and Janna C. Merrick. 33-59. Cambridge; London: The MIT Press, 2005.
Toplam 30 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm ARAŞTIRMA MAKALELERİ
Yazarlar

Ercan Avci 0000-0003-4857-8429

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 1 Haziran 2023
Yayımlanma Tarihi 15 Haziran 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 5 Ocak 2023
Kabul Tarihi 9 Nisan 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023

Kaynak Göster

ISNAD Avci, Ercan. “Some Ethical Concerns About End of Life: A Paradigm Shift From Ars Moriendi to Medicalized Death”. Şırnak Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 31 (Haziran 2023), 6-21. https://doi.org/10.35415/sirnakifd.1230066.

Şırnak Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı (CC BY NC) ile lisanslanmıştır.