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Are Public-Private Components of Health Care Expenditures Converging Among OECD Countries? Evidence from a Nonlinear Panel Unit Root Test

Yıl 2019, , 89 - 112, 31.07.2019

Gülsüm Akarsu , Reyhan Cafrı , Hanife Bıdırdı

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05
Cited By: 4

Öz

Many countries devote an increasing proportion of their economic resources to produce and provide health care services. Looking at the written economic literature, it can be seen that although there is work on convergence in health expenditures, these studies are generally based on linearity assumption. In this study, the validity of the convergence hypothesis on the public, private and total per capita health expenditures are analyzed by non-linear panel unit root tests in a sample of 18 OECD countries, covering Turkey, over the period 1979-2016. The findings of the analysis show that the convergence hypothesis is valid only for private per capita health expenditure.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Public and Private Health Care Expenditures Convergence Nonlinear Unit Root Tests

Kaynakça

  • Apergis, N. (2015), “Convergence in Public Expenditure Across a Sample of Emerging Countries: Evidence from Club Convergence”, Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 51(3), 448-462.
  • Apergis, N., Chang, T., Christou, C. ve Gupta, R. (2015), “Convergence of Health Care Expenditures Across the US States: A Reconsideration”, Working Paper, 2015-42, Department of Economics, University of Pretoria.
  • Aslan, A. (2008), “Convergence of Per Capita Health Care Expenditures in OECD Countries”, MPRA Paper 10592, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  • Baltagi, B.H, Feng, Q. ve Kao, C. (2012), “A Lagrange Multiplier Test for Cross-sectional Dependence in a Fixed Effects Panel Data Model”, Journal of the Econometrics, 170, 164–177.
  • Barro, R.J. ve Sala-i-Martin, X. (2004), “Economic Growth”, Cambridge, London: MIT Press.
  • Bernard, A.B. ve Durlauf, S.N. (1996), “Interpreting Tests of the Convergence Hypothesis”, Journal of Econometrics, 71, 161-173.
  • Beyaert, A. ve Camacho, M. (2008), “TAR Panel Unit Root Tests and Real Convergence”, Review of Development Economics, 12(3), 668–681.
  • Bloom, D.E. ve Canning, D. (2000), “The Health and Wealth of Nations”, Science, 287(5456), 1207-1209.
  • Breusch, T. ve Pagan, A. (1980). “The Lagrange Multiplier Test and its Application to Model Specification in Econometrics”, Review of Economic Studies, 47, 239–253.
  • Ceylan, R. (2010), “G-7 Ülkelerinin Yakınsama Deneyimi: 1870-2006”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(3), 311-324.
  • Chang, Y. (2004), “Bootstrap Unit Root Tests in Panels with Cross-Sectional Dependency”, Journal of Econometrics, 120(2), 263–293.
  • Chortareas, G. ve Kapetanios, G. (2009), “Getting PPP Right: Identifying Mean-reverting Real Exchange Rates in Panels”, Journal of Banking and Finance, 33(2), 390–404.
  • Clemente, J., Marcuello, C., Montañés, A. ve Pueyo, F. (2004), “On The International Stability of Health Care Expenditure Functions: Are Government and Private Functions Similar?”, Journal of Health Economics, 23(3), 589-613.
  • Çorakcı, A., Emirmahmutoğlu, F ve Omay T. (2017), “Re-Examining The Real Interest Rate Parity Hypothesis (RIPH) Using Panel Unit Root Tests with Asymmetry and Cross-Section Dependence”, Empirica, 44, 91–120.
  • Emirmahmutoğlu, F. ve Omay T. (2014), “Reexamining the PPP Hypothesis: A Nonlinear Asymmetric Heterogeneous Panel Unit Root Test”, Economic Modelling, 40, 184-190.
  • Enders, W. ve Granger, C. W. J. (1998), “Unit Root Tests and Asymmetric Adjustment with An Example Using The Term Structure of Interest Rates”, Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 16, 304–311.
  • Grossman, M. (1972), “On the Concept of Health Capital and The Demand for Health”, Journal of Political Economy, 80(2), 223-255.
  • Gündüz, H.İ. ve Tatoğlu, F.Y. (2018), OECD Ülkeleri İçin Sağlık Harcamalarında Yakınsama Olgusu Geçerli midir? İkinci Kuşak Panel Birimi Kök Testleri, IBANESS (International Balkan and Near Eastern Social Sciences) Congress Series VII, Tekirdağ / Türkiye, Mart 24-25, 2018.
  • Güriş, B. Ve Tıraşoğlu, M. (2018), “Doğrusal Olmayan Birim Kök Testleri”, Selahattin Güriş (der.), Uygulamalı Panel Veri Ekonometrisi içinde, İstanbul: Der Yayınları, 373-394.
  • Hitiris, T. ve Nixon, J. (2001), “Convergence of Health are Expenditure in The EU Countries”, Applied Economics Letters, 8(4), 223-228.
  • Im, K.S., Pesaran, M.H. ve Shin, Y. (2003), “Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous Panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 115, 53–74.
  • Kapetanios, G., Shin, Y. ve Snell, A. (2003), “Testing for a Unit Root in the Nonlinear STAR Framework”, Journal of Econometrics, 112(2), 359–379.
  • Kerem, K., Puss, T., Viies, M. ve Maldre, R. (2008), “Health and Convergence of Health Care Expenditure in EU”, International Business and Economics Research Journal, 7(3), 29-44.
  • Lau, M.C.K., Fung, K.W.T. ve Pugalis, L. (2014), “Is Health Care Expenditure Across Europe Converging? Findings from The Application of a Nonlinear Panel Unit Root Test”, Eurasian Business Review, 4(2), 137-156.
  • Montanari, I. ve Nelson, K. (2013), “Social Services Decline and System Convergence: How Does Health Care Fare?”, Journal of European Social Policy, 23(1), 102–116.
  • Mushkin, S.J. (1962), “Health as an Investment”, Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 129-157.
  • Narayan, P.K. (2007), “Do Health Expenditures ‘Catch-up’? Evidence from OECD countries”, Health Economics, 16(10), 993-1008.
  • Narayan, P.K. (2009), “Are Health Expenditures and GDP Characterized by Asymmetric behavior? Evidence from 11 OECD Countries”, Applied Economics, 41(4), 531-536.
  • Nelson, R.R. ve Phelps, E.S. (1966), “Investment in Humans, Technological Diffusion, and Economic Growth”, The American Economic Review, 56(1/2), 69-75.
  • Newhouse, J.P. (1992), “Medical Care Costs: How Much Welfare Loss?”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 6(3), 3-21.
  • Nghiem, S.H. ve Connelly, L.B. (2017), “Convergence and Determinants of Health Expenditures in OECD Countries”, Health Economics Review, 7, 1-11.
  • Noy, S. ve McManus, P.A. (2015), “Modernization, Globalization, Trends, and Convergence in Health Expenditure in Latin America and The Caribbean”, Sociology of Development, 1(2), 321-346.
  • OECD.Stat (2018), Health Expenditure and Financing, <https://stats.oecd.org>, 05.08.2018.
  • Payne, J.E., Anderson, S., Lee, J., ve Cho, M.H. (2015), “Do Per Capita Health Care Expenditures Converge Among OECD Countries? Evidence from Unit Root Tests with Level and Trend-Shifts”, Applied Economics, 47(52), 5600-5613.
  • Pekkurnaz, D. (2015), “Convergence of Health Expenditure in OECD Countries: Evidence from a Nonlinear Asymmetric Heterogeneous Panel Unit Root Test”, Journal of Reviews on Global Economics, 4, 76-86.
  • Perovic, L.M., Golem, S., ve Kosor, M.M. (2016), “Convergence in Government Spending Components in EU15: A Spatial Econometric Perspective”, Amfiteatru Economic Journal, 18(42), 240-254.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2004), “General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels”, Cambridge Working Papers in Economics, No. 0435, University of Cambridge, Faculty of Economics.
  • Romer, P.M. (1990), “Endogenous Technological Change”, The Journal of Political Economy, 98(5), 71–102.
  • Romer, P.M. (1994), “The Origins of Endogenous Growth”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8(1), 3–22.
  • Sala-i-Martin, X. (1996), “The Classical Approach to Convergence Analysis”, The Economic Journal, 106(437), 1019-1036.
  • Sargutan, E. (2014a), Ülkelerin Karşılaştırmalı Sağlık Sistemleri, <http://www.sargutan. com/AVUSTRALYA%20SAGLIK%20SISTEMI.pdf> , 20.09.2018.
  • Sargutan, E. (2014b), Ülkelerin Karşılaştırmalı Sağlık Sistemleri, <http://www.sargutan. com/PORTEKIZ%20SAGLIK%20SISTEMI.pdf>, 20.09.2018.
  • Sollis, R. (2009), “A Simple Unit Root Test Against Asymmetric STAR Nonlinearity with and Application to Real Exchange Rates in Nordic Countries”, Economic Modelling, 26(1), 118-125.
  • Solow, R. M. (1956), “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94.
  • Tülümce, Y.S. ve Zeren, F. (2013), “OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlığın Yakınsamasının Analizi: Panel Birim Kök Testi”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 18(2), 287-300.
  • Ucar, N. ve Omay, T. (2009), “Testing for Unit Roots in Nonlinear Heterogeneous Panels”, Economics Letters, 104(1), 5-8.
  • Yazgan, Ş., Ceylan, R. ve Mollavelioğlu, M.Ş. (2018), “Seçilmiş NATO Ülkelerinde Askeri Harcamaların Yakınsaması: Doğrusal Olmayan Birim Kök Testinden Kanıtlar”, Akdeniz İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, 18(37), 118-132.

OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları

Yıl 2019, , 89 - 112, 31.07.2019

Gülsüm Akarsu , Reyhan Cafrı , Hanife Bıdırdı

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05
Cited By: 4

Öz

Birçok ülke, ekonomik kaynaklarının giderek artan bir oranını, sağlık hizmetlerinin üretimine ve sunumuna ayırmaktadır. İktisat yazınına bakıldığında, sağlık harcamalarındaki yakınsama üzerine çalışmalar bulunmakla birlikte, bunların genellikle doğrusallık varsayımıyla hareket ettiği görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada, 1979-2016 dönemi için Türkiye’nin de içinde bulunduğu 18 OECD ülkesinde kişi başına düşen kamu, özel ve toplam sağlık harcamalarında yakınsama hipotezinin geçerliliği, doğrusal olmayan panel birim kök testleriyle analiz edilmektedir. Analiz bulguları, sadece kişi başına düşen özel sağlık harcamaları için yakınsama olgusunun geçerli olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kamu ve Özel Sağlık Harcamaları Yakınsama Doğrusal Olmayan Birim Kök Testi

Kaynakça

  • Apergis, N. (2015), “Convergence in Public Expenditure Across a Sample of Emerging Countries: Evidence from Club Convergence”, Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 51(3), 448-462.
  • Apergis, N., Chang, T., Christou, C. ve Gupta, R. (2015), “Convergence of Health Care Expenditures Across the US States: A Reconsideration”, Working Paper, 2015-42, Department of Economics, University of Pretoria.
  • Aslan, A. (2008), “Convergence of Per Capita Health Care Expenditures in OECD Countries”, MPRA Paper 10592, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  • Baltagi, B.H, Feng, Q. ve Kao, C. (2012), “A Lagrange Multiplier Test for Cross-sectional Dependence in a Fixed Effects Panel Data Model”, Journal of the Econometrics, 170, 164–177.
  • Barro, R.J. ve Sala-i-Martin, X. (2004), “Economic Growth”, Cambridge, London: MIT Press.
  • Bernard, A.B. ve Durlauf, S.N. (1996), “Interpreting Tests of the Convergence Hypothesis”, Journal of Econometrics, 71, 161-173.
  • Beyaert, A. ve Camacho, M. (2008), “TAR Panel Unit Root Tests and Real Convergence”, Review of Development Economics, 12(3), 668–681.
  • Bloom, D.E. ve Canning, D. (2000), “The Health and Wealth of Nations”, Science, 287(5456), 1207-1209.
  • Breusch, T. ve Pagan, A. (1980). “The Lagrange Multiplier Test and its Application to Model Specification in Econometrics”, Review of Economic Studies, 47, 239–253.
  • Ceylan, R. (2010), “G-7 Ülkelerinin Yakınsama Deneyimi: 1870-2006”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(3), 311-324.
  • Chang, Y. (2004), “Bootstrap Unit Root Tests in Panels with Cross-Sectional Dependency”, Journal of Econometrics, 120(2), 263–293.
  • Chortareas, G. ve Kapetanios, G. (2009), “Getting PPP Right: Identifying Mean-reverting Real Exchange Rates in Panels”, Journal of Banking and Finance, 33(2), 390–404.
  • Clemente, J., Marcuello, C., Montañés, A. ve Pueyo, F. (2004), “On The International Stability of Health Care Expenditure Functions: Are Government and Private Functions Similar?”, Journal of Health Economics, 23(3), 589-613.
  • Çorakcı, A., Emirmahmutoğlu, F ve Omay T. (2017), “Re-Examining The Real Interest Rate Parity Hypothesis (RIPH) Using Panel Unit Root Tests with Asymmetry and Cross-Section Dependence”, Empirica, 44, 91–120.
  • Emirmahmutoğlu, F. ve Omay T. (2014), “Reexamining the PPP Hypothesis: A Nonlinear Asymmetric Heterogeneous Panel Unit Root Test”, Economic Modelling, 40, 184-190.
  • Enders, W. ve Granger, C. W. J. (1998), “Unit Root Tests and Asymmetric Adjustment with An Example Using The Term Structure of Interest Rates”, Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 16, 304–311.
  • Grossman, M. (1972), “On the Concept of Health Capital and The Demand for Health”, Journal of Political Economy, 80(2), 223-255.
  • Gündüz, H.İ. ve Tatoğlu, F.Y. (2018), OECD Ülkeleri İçin Sağlık Harcamalarında Yakınsama Olgusu Geçerli midir? İkinci Kuşak Panel Birimi Kök Testleri, IBANESS (International Balkan and Near Eastern Social Sciences) Congress Series VII, Tekirdağ / Türkiye, Mart 24-25, 2018.
  • Güriş, B. Ve Tıraşoğlu, M. (2018), “Doğrusal Olmayan Birim Kök Testleri”, Selahattin Güriş (der.), Uygulamalı Panel Veri Ekonometrisi içinde, İstanbul: Der Yayınları, 373-394.
  • Hitiris, T. ve Nixon, J. (2001), “Convergence of Health are Expenditure in The EU Countries”, Applied Economics Letters, 8(4), 223-228.
  • Im, K.S., Pesaran, M.H. ve Shin, Y. (2003), “Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous Panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 115, 53–74.
  • Kapetanios, G., Shin, Y. ve Snell, A. (2003), “Testing for a Unit Root in the Nonlinear STAR Framework”, Journal of Econometrics, 112(2), 359–379.
  • Kerem, K., Puss, T., Viies, M. ve Maldre, R. (2008), “Health and Convergence of Health Care Expenditure in EU”, International Business and Economics Research Journal, 7(3), 29-44.
  • Lau, M.C.K., Fung, K.W.T. ve Pugalis, L. (2014), “Is Health Care Expenditure Across Europe Converging? Findings from The Application of a Nonlinear Panel Unit Root Test”, Eurasian Business Review, 4(2), 137-156.
  • Montanari, I. ve Nelson, K. (2013), “Social Services Decline and System Convergence: How Does Health Care Fare?”, Journal of European Social Policy, 23(1), 102–116.
  • Mushkin, S.J. (1962), “Health as an Investment”, Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 129-157.
  • Narayan, P.K. (2007), “Do Health Expenditures ‘Catch-up’? Evidence from OECD countries”, Health Economics, 16(10), 993-1008.
  • Narayan, P.K. (2009), “Are Health Expenditures and GDP Characterized by Asymmetric behavior? Evidence from 11 OECD Countries”, Applied Economics, 41(4), 531-536.
  • Nelson, R.R. ve Phelps, E.S. (1966), “Investment in Humans, Technological Diffusion, and Economic Growth”, The American Economic Review, 56(1/2), 69-75.
  • Newhouse, J.P. (1992), “Medical Care Costs: How Much Welfare Loss?”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 6(3), 3-21.
  • Nghiem, S.H. ve Connelly, L.B. (2017), “Convergence and Determinants of Health Expenditures in OECD Countries”, Health Economics Review, 7, 1-11.
  • Noy, S. ve McManus, P.A. (2015), “Modernization, Globalization, Trends, and Convergence in Health Expenditure in Latin America and The Caribbean”, Sociology of Development, 1(2), 321-346.
  • OECD.Stat (2018), Health Expenditure and Financing, <https://stats.oecd.org>, 05.08.2018.
  • Payne, J.E., Anderson, S., Lee, J., ve Cho, M.H. (2015), “Do Per Capita Health Care Expenditures Converge Among OECD Countries? Evidence from Unit Root Tests with Level and Trend-Shifts”, Applied Economics, 47(52), 5600-5613.
  • Pekkurnaz, D. (2015), “Convergence of Health Expenditure in OECD Countries: Evidence from a Nonlinear Asymmetric Heterogeneous Panel Unit Root Test”, Journal of Reviews on Global Economics, 4, 76-86.
  • Perovic, L.M., Golem, S., ve Kosor, M.M. (2016), “Convergence in Government Spending Components in EU15: A Spatial Econometric Perspective”, Amfiteatru Economic Journal, 18(42), 240-254.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2004), “General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels”, Cambridge Working Papers in Economics, No. 0435, University of Cambridge, Faculty of Economics.
  • Romer, P.M. (1990), “Endogenous Technological Change”, The Journal of Political Economy, 98(5), 71–102.
  • Romer, P.M. (1994), “The Origins of Endogenous Growth”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8(1), 3–22.
  • Sala-i-Martin, X. (1996), “The Classical Approach to Convergence Analysis”, The Economic Journal, 106(437), 1019-1036.
  • Sargutan, E. (2014a), Ülkelerin Karşılaştırmalı Sağlık Sistemleri, <http://www.sargutan. com/AVUSTRALYA%20SAGLIK%20SISTEMI.pdf> , 20.09.2018.
  • Sargutan, E. (2014b), Ülkelerin Karşılaştırmalı Sağlık Sistemleri, <http://www.sargutan. com/PORTEKIZ%20SAGLIK%20SISTEMI.pdf>, 20.09.2018.
  • Sollis, R. (2009), “A Simple Unit Root Test Against Asymmetric STAR Nonlinearity with and Application to Real Exchange Rates in Nordic Countries”, Economic Modelling, 26(1), 118-125.
  • Solow, R. M. (1956), “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94.
  • Tülümce, Y.S. ve Zeren, F. (2013), “OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlığın Yakınsamasının Analizi: Panel Birim Kök Testi”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 18(2), 287-300.
  • Ucar, N. ve Omay, T. (2009), “Testing for Unit Roots in Nonlinear Heterogeneous Panels”, Economics Letters, 104(1), 5-8.
  • Yazgan, Ş., Ceylan, R. ve Mollavelioğlu, M.Ş. (2018), “Seçilmiş NATO Ülkelerinde Askeri Harcamaların Yakınsaması: Doğrusal Olmayan Birim Kök Testinden Kanıtlar”, Akdeniz İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, 18(37), 118-132.
Toplam 47 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Gülsüm Akarsu 0000-0002-4877-1969

Reyhan Cafrı 0000-0002-6271-5330

Hanife Bıdırdı 0000-0002-2462-2926

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Temmuz 2019
Gönderilme Tarihi 4 Kasım 2018
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2019

Kaynak Göster

APA Akarsu, G., Cafrı, R., & Bıdırdı, H. (2019). OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları. Sosyoekonomi, 27(41), 89-112. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05
AMA Akarsu G, Cafrı R, Bıdırdı H. OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları. Sosyoekonomi. Temmuz 2019;27(41):89-112. doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05
Chicago Akarsu, Gülsüm, Reyhan Cafrı, ve Hanife Bıdırdı. “OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları”. Sosyoekonomi 27, sy. 41 (Temmuz 2019): 89-112. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05.
EndNote Akarsu G, Cafrı R, Bıdırdı H (01 Temmuz 2019) OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları. Sosyoekonomi 27 41 89–112.
IEEE G. Akarsu, R. Cafrı, ve H. Bıdırdı, “OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları”, Sosyoekonomi, c. 27, sy. 41, ss. 89–112, 2019, doi: 10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05.
ISNAD Akarsu, Gülsüm vd. “OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları”. Sosyoekonomi 27/41 (Temmuz 2019), 89-112. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05.
JAMA Akarsu G, Cafrı R, Bıdırdı H. OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları. Sosyoekonomi. 2019;27:89–112.
MLA Akarsu, Gülsüm vd. “OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları”. Sosyoekonomi, c. 27, sy. 41, 2019, ss. 89-112, doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.05.
Vancouver Akarsu G, Cafrı R, Bıdırdı H. OECD Ülkelerinde Sağlık Harcamalarının Kamu-Özel Bileşenleri Yakınsıyor Mu? Doğrusal Olmayan Panel Birim Kök Testi Bulguları. Sosyoekonomi. 2019;27(41):89-112.

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