Finansal Okuryazarlıkta Cinsiyet Eşitsizliği: Bir Meta Analiz Çalışması

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 32 Sayı: 61, 97 - 123, 30.07.2024

Haşmet Sarıgül

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2024.03.06

Öz

Dünya genelinde çok sayıda çalışmanın bulguları; yaş, eğitim düzeyi ve sosyoekonomik statüden bağımsız olarak, kadınlar aleyhine finansal okuryazarlık seviye farkının olduğuna işaret etmektedir. Türkiye’ye yönelik araştırmalarda ise, genellikle cinsiyet değişkenler arasında yer almasına karşın, yazar tarafından bilindiği kadarıyla, bunlardan hiçbirisi özellikle cinsiyet farklılığına odaklanmamıştır. Bu araştırma ilgili çalışmaların sonuçlarını meta-analiz teknikleri kullanmak suretiyle tek bir ölçümde birleştirmektedir. Araştırma bulguları Türkiye’de finansal okuryazarlık konusunda kadınlar aleyhine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Çoğu zaman cinsiyetler arası ücret farkına maruz kalan, daha fazla istihdam kesintisiyle karşılaşan ve daha uzun yaşama eğiliminde olan kadınlar için finansal okuryazarlık son derece önemlidir. Çalışmanın sonuçları ve kadınların dezavantajlı konumları bir arada değerlendirildiğinde, finansal okuryazarlık düzeylerinin yükseltilmesine yönelik kapsayıcı eğitim politikalarının oluşturulmasının ve uygulanmasının yararlı olacağı anlaşılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Finansal Okuryazarlık, Cinsiyet Eşitsizliği, Meta Analiz, Türkiye

Financial Literacy Gender Gap: A Meta-Analysis

Öz

Several studies around the world identify a gender gap in financial literacy against women regardless of age, education level, and socioeconomic status. Although gender is included as one of the variables in many studies focusing on Türkiye, as far as we know, none of them particularly has examined the gender difference. This paper integrates the outputs of these studies in terms of gender and combines them into one measure by conducting meta-analysis techniques. The results reveal a gender gap in financial literacy among women. Financial literacy is essential for women who mostly experience the gender pay gap, face more significant employment interruption challenges and tend to live longer than men. Given those issues, this study highlights implementing inclusive education policies and establishing comprehensive, long-term education programs to improve women’s financial literacy.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Financial Literacy, Gender-Gap, Meta-Analysis, Türkiye

Kaynakça

• Adam, A.M. et al. (2018), “Does Gender Disparity in Financial Literacy Still Persist After Retirement? Evidence from Ghana”, International Journal of Social Economics, 45(1), 18-28.
• Agnew, J. & L. Szykman (2004), Asset Allocation and Information Overload: The Influence of Information Display, Asset Choice and Investor Experience, Center for Retirement Research.
• Aguiar-Díaz, I. & J.R. Zagalaz-Jiménez (2022), “Women and Financial Literacy in Spain. Does Marital Status Matter?”, Journal of Women and Aging, 34(6), 785-799.
• Almenberg, J. & A. Dreber (2016), “Gender, Stock Market Participation and Financial Literacy”, Economics Letters, 137, 140-142.
• Ameer, R. & R. Khan (2020), “Financial Socialization, Financial Literacy, and Financial Behavior of Adults in New Zealand”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 31(2), 313-329.
• Antonopoulos, R. (2009), “The Current Economic and Financial Crisis: A Gender Perspective”, The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College Working Paper No. 562.
• Atkinson, A. & F.A. Messy (2012), “Measuring Financial Literacy”, OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions No. 15.
• Atlas, S.A. et al. (2019), “Financial Knowledge, Confidence, Credit Use, and Financial Satisfaction”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 30(2), 175-190.
• Aydın, S. (2023), “Finansal Okuryazarlık ve Öz-Yeterlilik Tutumunun Bireylerin Finansal Davranışları Üzerindeki Etkisi: Türkiye’deki Aktif Nüfus Üzerine Kanıtlar”, Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(3), 770-793.
• Baglioni, A. et al. (2018), “On the Anatomy of Financial Literacy in Italy”, Economic Notes, 47(2-3), 245-304.
• Bajtelsmit, V.L. & A. Bernasek (1997), “Why Do Women Invest Differently Than Men?”, Financial Counseling and Planning, 7, 1-10.
• Baker, H.K. et al. (2019), “How Financial Literacy and Demographic Variables Relate to Behavioral Biases”, Managerial Finance, 45(1), 124-146.
• Başarır, Ç. & A.Y. Sarıhan (2017), “Üni̇versi̇te Öğrenci̇leri̇ni̇n Finansal Okuryazarlıklarının Belirlenmesi: Bandırma Onyedi̇ Eylül Üni̇versi̇tesi̇ Örneği̇”, Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(1), 143-162.
• Bianchi, M. (2018), “Financial Literacy and Portfolio Dynamics”, The Journal of Finance, 73(2), 831-859.
• Borenstein, M. et al. (2021), Introduction to Meta-Analysis, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Bucher-Koenen, T. et al. (2017), “How Financially Literate are Women? An Overview and New Insights”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 51(2), 255-283.
• Bussey, K. & D.G. Perry (1982), “Same-Sex Imitation: The Avoidance of Cross-Sex Models or The Acceptance of Same-Sex Models?”, Sex Roles, 8(7), 773-784.
• Carpena, F. et al. (2019), “The ABCs of Financial Education: Experimental Evidence on Attitudes, Behavior, And Cognitive Biases”, Management Science, 65(1), 346-369.
• Chambers, R.G. et al. (2019), “Gender, Parental Characteristics, and Financial Knowledge of High School Students: Evidence from Multicounty Data”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 30(1), 97-109.
• Cochran, W.G. (1950), “The Comparison of Percentages in Matched Samples”, Biometrika, 37(3/4), 256-266.
• Cohen, J. (1988), Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, New York: L. Erlbaum Associates.
• Collins, C. et al. (2020), “Covid‐19 and the Gender Gap in Work Hours”, Gender, Work & Organization, 28(S1), 101-112.
• Cooper, H.M. et al. (2019), The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
• Coskun, A. et al. (2019), “Financial Literacy in Turkey”, International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 8(3), 1-16.
• Cupák, A. et al. (2018), “Decomposing Gender Gaps in Financial Literacy: New International Evidence”, Economics Letters, 168, 102-106.
• Danes, S. & H. Haberman (2007), “Teen Financial Knowledge, Self-Efficacy, and Behavior: A Gendered View”, Financial Counseling and Planning, 18(2), 48-60.
• Delavande, A. et al. (2008), “Preparation for Retirement, Financial Knowledge and Cognitive Resources”, University of Michigan, Michigan Retirement Research Center Working Paper No. WP 2008-190.
• Driva, A. et al. (2016), “Gender Differences and Stereotypes in Financial Literacy: Off to An Early Start”, Economics Letters, 146, 143-146.
• Ergün, K. & A. Serel (2019), “Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Finansal Okuryazarlığı: Balıkesir Üniversitesi Örneği”, İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(2), 1385-1410.
• Fanta, A.B. et al. (2016), “Financial Literacy and Financial Inclusion in the SADC Region: Evidence Using Finscope Surveys”, FinMark Trust Policy Research Paper No. 02/2016.
• Fernandes, D. et al. (2014), “Financial Literacy, Financial Education, and Downstream Financial Behaviors”, Management Science, 60(8), 1861-1883.
• Fonseca, R. & S. Lord (2019), “Canadian Gender Gap in Financial Literacy: Confidence Matters”, Université du Québec à Montréal Département des Sciences Économiques Working Paper No. 2019-12.
• Fonseca, R. et al. (2012), “What Explains the Gender Gap in Financial Literacy? The Role of Household Decision Making”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 46(1), 90-106.
• Gibson, P. et al. (2021), “The Value of Financial Education During Multiple Life Stages”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 33(1), 24-43.
• Glass, G.V. (1976), “Primary, Secondary, And Meta-Analysis of Research”, Educational Researcher, 5(10), 3-8.
• Greimel-Fuhrmann, B. & M. Silgoner (2018), “Analyzing the Gender Gap in Financial Literacy”, International Journal for Infonomics, 11(3), 1779-1787.
• Gümüş, U.T. & M.K. Pailer (2019), “Öğrencilerin Finans Dersi Alma Durumunun Finansal Okuryazarlık Seviyesine Etkisi: Bir Nazilli Örneği”, OPUS Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11(18), 1494-1516.
• Güvemli, B. & S. Meydan (2019), “Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Finansal Davranışları ve Finansal Tutumları: Trakya Üniversitesi Örneği”, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, (Special Issue), 171-184.
• Hasler, A. & A. Lusardi (2017), The gender gap in financial literacy: A global perspective, The George Washington University School of Business Global Financial Literacy Excellence Center.
• Hedges, L.V. (1981), “Distribution Theory for Glass's Estimator of Effect Size and Related Estimators”, Journal of Educational Statistics, 6(2), 107-128.
• Hilgert, M.A. et al. (2003), “Household Financial Management: The Connection Between Knowledge and Behavior”, Federal Reserve Bulletin, (July), 309-322.
• Holzmann, R. (2010), “Bringing Financial Literacy and Education to Low and Middle-Income Countries: The Need to Review, Adjust, and Extend Current Wisdom”, The World Bank Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 1007-56501.
• Hsu, J.W. (2011), “Aging and strategic learning: The Impact of Spousal Incentives on Financial Literacy”, Indiana State University, Scott College of Business, Networks Financial Institute Working Paper No. 2011-WP-06.
• Hung, A.A. et al. (2009), “Defining and Measuring Financial Literacy”, RAND Labor, and Population Working Paper Series No. WR-708.
• Huston, S.J. (2010), “Measuring Financial Literacy”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 44(2), 296-316.
• Hyde, J.S. (2005), “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis”, American Psychologist, 60(6), 581-592.
• Jappelli, T. & M. Padula (2011), “Investment in Financial Knowledge and Saving Decisions”, Goethe University CFS Working Paper No. 2011/07.
• Jorgensen, B.L. & J. Savla (2010), “Financial Literacy of Young Adults: The Importance of Parental Socialization”, Family Relations, 59(4), 465-478.
• Kadoya, Y. & M.S. Khan (2020), “What Determines Financial Literacy in Japan?”, Journal of Pension Economics and Finance, 19(3), 353-371.
• Kaiser, T. & L. Menkhoff (2017), “Does Financial Education Impact Financial Literacy and Financial Behavior, and If So, When?”, The World Bank Economic Review, 31(3), 611-630.
• Kaiser, T. & L. Menkhoff (2020), “Financial Education in Schools: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies”, Economics of Education Review, 78, 101930.
• Karakoç, M. & E. Yeşildağ (2019), “Uygulamalı Bi̇li̇mler Yüksekokulu Öğrenci̇leri̇ni̇n Finansal Okuryazarlık Düzeyleri̇ni̇ Tespi̇t Etmeye Yönelik Bir Alan Araştırması: Ege Bölgesi̇’nde Bi̇r Uygulama”, Muhasebe ve Vergi Uygulamaları Dergisi, 12(3), 511-531.
• Karakulle, İ. & F.Z. Tan (2018), “Finansal Okuryazarlik ile Kredi̇ Kartı Tutumu Arasındaki İli̇şki̇ni̇n İncelenmesi: Üni̇versi̇te Öğrenci̇leri̇ Üzeri̇ne Bir Araştırma”, Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 69(69), 461-477.
• Karakurum-Ozdemir, K. et al. (2018), “Financial Literacy in Developing Countries”, Social Indicators Research, 143(1), 325-353.
• Kaya, M. & H. Güneş (2019), “Üni̇versi̇te Öğrenci̇leri̇ni̇n Finansal Okuryazarlık Düzeyleri̇ni̇n Analizi: Bankacılık ve Finans Bölümü Öğrenci̇leri̇ Üzeri̇ne Bir Uygulama”, Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 11(28), 295-305.
• Khan, M.N. et al. (2017), “Understanding the Financial Knowledge Gap: A New Dimension of Inequality in Later Life”, Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 60(6-7), 487-503.
• Klapper, L. et al. (2015), Financial Literacy Around the World, Standard & Poor’s Ratings Services Global Financial Literacy Survey.
• Kumar, S. et al. (2019), “Analysis of Key Barriers in Retirement Planning”, Journal of Modelling in Management, 14(4), 972-986.
• LeBaron, A.B. et al. (2020), “Parental Financial Education During Childhood and Financial Behaviors of Emerging Adults”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 31(1), 42-54.
• Lee, W. & M. Hotopf (2012), “Critical Appraisal: Reviewing Scientific Evidence and Reading Academic Papers”, in: P. Wright et al. (eds.), Core Psychiatry (131-142), Elsevier.
• Lipsey, M.W. & D.B. Wilson (2009), Practical Meta-Analysis, London: Sage Publications.
• Lührmann, M. et al. (2018), “The Impact of Financial Education on Adolescents’ Intertemporal Choices”, Economic Studies and IFO Institute Working Paper No. 4925.
• Lusardi, A. & O.S. Mitchell (2008), “Planning and Financial Literacy: How Do Women Fare?”, American Economic Review, 98(2), 413-417.
• Lusardi, A. & O.S. Mitchell (2011), “Financial Literacy Around the World: An Overview”, Journal of Pension Economics & Finance, 10(4), 497-508.
• Lusardi, A. & O.S. Mitchell (2014), “The Economic Importance of Financial Literacy: Theory and Evidence”, Journal of Economic Literature, 52(1), 5-44.
• Lusardi, A. (2019), “Financial Literacy and the Need for Financial Education: Evidence and Implications”, Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics, 155, 1.
• Lusardi, A. et al. (2010), “Financial Literacy Among the Young”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 44(2), 358-380.
• Lyons, A.C. et al. (2007), “What’s in a Score? Differences in Consumers’ Credit Knowledge Using OLS And Quantile Regressions”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 41(2), 223-249.
• Marley-Payne, J. et al. (2022), “Financial Education, Mathematical Confidence, and Financial Behavior”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 33(2), 194-204.
• Miller, C.F. (2016), “Theories of Gender Development”, in: A. Wong et al. (eds.), The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, <https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss590>, 08.10.2022.
• Miller, M. et al. (2015), “Can You Help Someone Become Financially Capable? A Meta-Analysis of The Literature”, The World Bank Research Observer, 30(2), 220-246.
• Montenovo, L. et al. (2020), “Determinants of Disparities in COVID-19 Job Losses”, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 27132.
• Nolan, A. & K. Doorley (2019), “Financial Literacy and Preparation for Retirement”, Institute for the Study of Labor IZA Discussion Papers No. 12187.
• OECD (2018), Good Jobs for All in A Changing World of Work: How Does Turkey Compare?, <https://www.oecd.org/turkey/jobs-strategy-TURKEY-EN.pdf>, 18.06.2021.
• OECD (2019, June 28), Women at Work in G20 Countries: Progress and Policy Action, <https://www.oecd.org/g20/summits/osaka/G20-Women-at-Work.pdf>, 18.06.2021.
• Okamoto, S. & K. Komamura (2018), “Ageing, Gender and Financial Literacy in Japan”, Keio University Institute for Economic Studies Discussion Paper Series No. DP2018-018.
• Orwin, R.G. (1983), “A Fail-Safe N for Effect Size in Meta-Analysis”, Journal of Educational Statistics, 8(2), 157-159.
• Palmer, L. et al. (2021), “Financial Self-Efficacy: Mediating the Association Between Self-Regulation and Financial Management Behaviors”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 32(3), 535-549.
• Payne, S.H. et al. (2014), “Spending Today or Saving for Tomorrow: The Influence of Family Financial Socialization on Financial Preparation for Retirement”, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 35(1), 106-118.
• Philippas, N.D. & C. Avdoulas (2019), “Financial Literacy and Financial Well-Being Among Generation-Z University Students: Evidence from Greece”, The European Journal of Finance, 26(4-5), 360-381.
• Pinto, L.E. (2013), “When Politics Trump Evidence: Financial Literacy Education Narratives Following the Global Financial Crisis”, Journal of Education Policy, 28, 95-120.
• Potrich, A.C. et al. (2018), “How Well Do Women Do When It Comes to Financial Literacy? Proposition of an Indicator and Analysis of Gender Differences”, Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, 17, 28-41.
• Preston, A.C. & R.E. Wright (2019), “Understanding the Gender Gap in Financial Literacy: Evidence from Australia”, Economic Record, 95(S1), 1-29.
• Rink, U. et al. (2021) “The Financial Literacy Gender Gap and The Role of Culture”, The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 80, 117-134.
• Santini, F.D O. et al. (2019), “The Antecedents and Consequences of Financial Literacy: A Meta-Analysis”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, 37(6), 1462-1479.
• Seguino, S. (2010), “The Global Economic Crisis, Its Gender and Ethnic Implications, and Policy Responses”, Gender & Development, 18(2), 179-199.
• Sekita, S. (2011), “Financial Literacy and Retirement Planning in Japan”, Journal of Pension Economics & Finance, 10(4), 637-656.
• Shim, S. & J. Serido (2011, September), Young adults’ financial capability, The University of Arizona, <https://www.nefe.org/_images/research/APLUS-Wave-2/APLUS-Wave-2-Final-Report.pdf>, 14.04.2021.
• Szendrey, J.M. & L.A. Fiala (2021), “Family Communication, Resources, and Income in Adolescence and Financial Behaviors in Young Adulthood”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 32(3), 464-478.
• Tekin-Önür, H. & E. Dündar (2021), “Geleneksel İslam Anlayışında Kadının Çalışması”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 23(1), 321-346.
• TurkStat (2021a), Evlenme ve Boşanma Istatistikleri, <https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Marriage-and-Divorce-Statistics-2020-37211>, 22.05.2021.
• TurkStat (2021b), Women with Statistics, <https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Istatistiklerle-Kadin-2020-37221>, 23.05.2021.
• UN (2015, September 25), Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development, United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform, 16.03.2021.
• Van Den Noortgate, W. & P. Onghena (2003), “Estimating the Mean Effect Size in Meta-Analysis: Bias, Precision, and Mean Squared Error of Different Weighting Methods”, Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 35(4), 504-511.
• van Rooij, M. et al. (2011), “Financial Literacy and Stock Market Participation”, Journal of Financial Economics, 101(2), 449-472.
• West, T. & E. Mitchell (2022), “Australian Women with Good Financial Knowledge Fare Better in Divorce”, Australian Journal of Management, 47(2), 203-224.
• Wilmarth, M.J. et al. (2021), “Young Adult Relationships: Perceived Financial Behaviors and Shared Financial Values”, Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 32(3), 507-516.
• Xiao, J.J. et al. (2014), “Consumer Financial Capability and Financial Satisfaction”, Social Indicators Research, (1), 415-432.
• Xu, L. & B. Zia (2012), “Financial literacy around the world: An overview of the evidence with practical suggestions for the way forward”, The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 6107.
• Yücel, F.H. (2022), “Lise Öğretmenlerinin Finansal Okuryazarlık Düzeylerinin Bazı Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi”, Ahi Evran Akademi, 3(1), 52-65.