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Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1, 69 - 87, 10.06.2024
https://doi.org/10.53025/sportive.1440189

Öz

This study discusses the exclusion of women, slaves, and physically disabled individuals from the ancient Olympics, focusing on Goffman's theory of stigma. It also delves into how kalokagathia influenced beauty, athleticism, and virtue, reinforced hierarchies and stigmatized those who did not fit the idealized image. Overall, the study provides a comprehensive exploration of how ancient Greek ideals and societal structures stigmatized certain groups based on gender, social status, and physical ability. Femininity, slavery, and physical disability were the conspicuous stigmatized identities of ancient Greek societies. In ancient Greece, the concept of kalokagathia, intertwining physical beauty with moral and intellectual excellence, formed the basis of societal standards. This ideal, however, was exclusive, applying only to free men of good heritage, while women, slaves, and the physically disabled faced stigmatization based on physiognomic reasoning and body temperature distinctions. The stigma was based on physical deviations from the able-bodied male standard. The physiognomic concept hidden behind the ideal of kalokagathia reproduced the stigma. Body temperature played a significant role in shaping discriminatory practices, associating warmth with virtues and deeming the male body superior. Women were considered inferior due to their colder bodies, and slaves were viewed as cold and incapable, reinforcing social hierarchies. Women and slaves were excluded from athletic ideals because of their non-normative body temperatures, while the physically disabled were excluded due to their ugly/deformed bodies. The ancient Olympics showcased able-bodied men displaying their athletic arete. Women's visibility in the ancient Greek Olympics was only representative. Restricted from participating in public athletic events, women were also subject to strict prohibitions on competition in the ancient Olympic Games. Only in the chariot races were exceptions made for unmarried women. While Kyniska emerged as the first female Olympic champion in 396 BCE, opportunities for representative participation in the Olympic Games were limited to women of wealth and status. Sport in ancient Greece served as a means of distinguishing between free citizens and slaves. Slaves, the anonymous figures of the ancient Olympics, could only participate in horse and chariot races on behalf of their owners. Although some local festivals allowed slave participation in athletic activities, major events like the Olympic Games prohibited direct competition for slaves, emphasizing their exclusion. This stigma-based athletic exclusion made it impossible for slaves to represent themselves as competitors in the ancient Olympics. The physically disabled, on the other hand, were completely deprived of the opportunity to compete in the ancient Olympics; they could compete neither representatively nor anonymously. Discriminatory practices against the physically disabled, embedded in social structures reinforced by philosophical ideals, myths, religious stereotypes and sacrificial rituals, resulted in them remaining completely absent from the ancient Olympics.

Kaynakça

  • Abrams, D., Hogg, M., & Marques, J. (Eds.). (2005). The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion. New York: Psychology Press.
  • Arboleda-Flórez, J. (2008). The rights of a powerless legion. In J. Arboleda-Florez, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Understanding the stigma of mental illness: theory and interventions (pp. 1-17). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Aristotle (1998). Politics. (Çev. C.D.C. Reeve). Indianapolis, USA: Hackett Publishing.
  • Barringer, J. M. (2005). The temple of Zeus at Olympia, heroes, and athletes. Hesperia, 74, 211-241.
  • Battle, B. P. (2019). “They look at you like you’re nothing”: Stigma and shame in the child support system. Symbolic Interaction, 42(4), 640-668.
  • Bertolin-Cebrian, R. (2020). The athlete in the ancient Greek world. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Bonnard, A. (2004). Antik Yunan Uygarlığı 1. (Çev: Kerem Kurtgözü). İstanbul: Evrensel Basım Yayın.
  • Bos, A. E., Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., & Stutterheim, S. E. (2013). Stigma: Advances in theory and research. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), 1-9.
  • Brockliss, W. (2019). Out of the mix: (dis)ability, intimacy, and the Homeric poems. Classical World, 113(1), 1-27.
  • Brown, D. C., McCree, D. H., & Eke, A. N. (2011). African Americans and HIV: Epidemiology, context, behavioral interventions, and future directions for prevention. In J. C. Hall, B. J. Hall & C. J. Cockerell (Eds.), HIV/AIDS in the Post-HAART Era: manifestations, treatment, and epidemiology (pp. 656-678). Shelton, CT: PMPH-USA.
  • Carson, A. (1990). Putting her in her place: Woman, dirt, and desire. In D. M. Halperin, J. J. Winkler & F. I. Zeitlin (Eds.), Before Sexuality (pp. 135-169). New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  • Crawford, A. M. (1996). Stigma associated with AIDS: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(5), 398–416.
  • Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 504-553). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Crowther, N. B. (1992). Slaves and Greek athletics. Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, 40(1), 35-42.
  • Crowther, N. B. (1996). Athlete and state: Qualifying for the Olympic Games in ancient Greece. Journal of Sport History, 23(1), 34-43.
  • Crowther, N. B. (2007). Sport in ancient times. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
  • David, R. (2017). Egyptian medicine and disabilities: From Pharaonic to Greco-Roman Egypt. In C. Laes (Ed.), Disability in antiquity (pp. 75-89). Abingdon: Routledge.
  • Dillon, Matthew (2002). Girls and women in Classical Greek religion. London: Routledge.
  • Dürrigl, M. A. (2002). Kalokagathia–beauty is more than just external appearance. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 1(4), 208-210.
  • Ebenstein, W. (2006). Toward an archetypal psychology of disability based on the Hephaestus myth. Disability Studies Quarterly, 26(4), (n.p.)
  • Estin C., & Laporte, H. (2004). Yunan ve Roma mitolojisi. Ankara: TÜBİTAK Yayınları.
  • Freeman, C. (2003). Mısır, Yunan ve Roma. (Çev. Suat Kemal Angı), Ankara: Dost Kitabevi.
  • Garland, R. (2009). Daily life of the ancient Greeks. Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press.
  • Garland, R. (2018). Athenian democracy: An experiment for the ages. Virginia, USA: The Great Courses.
  • Ghisalberti, G. (2016). The Christology of shame and the re‐evaluations of Hellenic ideas in 1 and 2 Timothy. The Heythrop Journal, 57(4), 625-637.
  • Giddens, A., & Sutton, W. S. (2018). Sosyolojide temel kavramlar. (Çev. Ali Esgin). Ankara: Phoenix Yayınevi.
  • Glassman R. M. (2017). The origins of democracy in tribes, city-states and nation-states, Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
  • Golden, M. (2008). Greek sport and social status. Teksas: University of Texas Press.
  • Hughes, B. (2019). The abject and the vulnerable: The twain shall meet: Reflections on disability in the moral economy. The Sociological Review Monographs, 67(4), 829–846.
  • Kelley, N. (2007). Deformity and disability in Greece and Rome. In H. Avalos, S. J. Melcher, & J. Schipper (Ed.), ThisAbled body: Rethinking disabilities in biblical studies (pp. 31-45). Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.
  • King, H. (2002). Hippocrates' woman: reading the female body in ancient Greece. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Koryürek, C. E. (2003). Olimpiyadlar. İstanbul: Stil Matbaacılık.
  • Kurzban, R., & Leary, M. R. (2001). Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: the functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 187-207.
  • Kyle, D. G. (2003). The only woman in all Greece: Kyniska, Agesilaus, Alcibiades and Olympia. Journal of Sport History, 30(2), 183-203.
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  • Le Clair, J. M. (2011). Global organizational change in sport and the shifting meaning of disability. Sport in Society, 14(9), 1072-1093.
  • Lee, M. M. (2015). Body, dress, and identity in ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press.
  • Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2018). Stigma as a fundamental cause of health inequality. In B.
  • Major, J. F. Dovidio & B. G. Link (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination, and health (pp. 53–68). NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
  • Major, B., & Eccleston, C.P. (2005). Stigma and social exclusion. In D. Abrams, M. Hogg, & J.M. Marques (Eds.), The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion (pp. 63-88). New York: Psychology Press.
  • Major, B., Dovidio, J. F., Link, B. G., & Calabrese, S. K. (2018). Stigma and its implications for health: Introduction and overview. In B. Major, J. F. Dovidio, & B.G. Link (Eds.), Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination and health (pp. 3-28). NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
  • Manetti, G. (2018). Yunanistan’da spor ve oyunlar. U. Eco (Ed.), Antik Yunan içinde (ss. 246-258). İstanbul: Alfa. Mann, C. (2014). People on the fringes of Greek sport. In P. Christesen & D.G. Kyle (Eds.), A companion to sport and spectacle in Greek and Roman antiquity (pp. 276-286). Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons.
  • Meeusen, M. (2017). Plutarch's 'philosophy' of disability: Human after all. In C. Laes (Ed.), Disability in antiquity (pp. 197-209). London-New York.
  • Miller, C. T. & Kaiser, C. R. (2001). Implications of mental models of self and others for the targets of stigmatization. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 3-20). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Neuberg, S. L., Smith, D. M., & Asher, T. (2000). Why people stigmatize: Toward a biocultural framework. In T. F.
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Antik Olimpiyatlar’da Görünür Damgalanmış Kimlikler: Kadınlık, Kölelik ve Bedensel Engellilik

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1, 69 - 87, 10.06.2024
https://doi.org/10.53025/sportive.1440189

Öz

Bu çalışma, Goffman'ın damgalama teorisine odaklanarak kadınların, kölelerin ve bedensel engelli bireylerin antik Olympiyat Oyunları’ndan dışlanmalarını tartışmaktadır. Ayrıca kalokagathia idealinin güzellik, atletizm ve erdem algısını nasıl etkilediğini, hiyerarşileri nasıl güçlendirdiğini ve idealize edilen imaja uymayanları damgalamayı nasıl sağladığını incelemektedir. Genel olarak bu çalışma, antik Yunan ideallerinin ve toplumsal yapılarının cinsiyet, sosyal statü ve bedensel yetenek temelinde belirli grupları nasıl damgaladığına dair kapsamlı bir inceleme sunmaktadır. Kadınlık, kölelik ve bedensel engellilik, antik Yunan toplumlarının göze çarpan damgalanmış kimlikleri olmuştur. Antik Yunan'da bedensel güzelliği ahlaki ve entelektüel mükemmellik ile bütünleştiren bir ideal olan kalokagathia, toplumsal standartların temelini oluşturmuştur. Ancak bu ideal, yalnızca iyi bir soydan gelen özgür erkeklere uygulanarak dışlayıcı bir nitelik taşımakta; öte yandan kadınlar, köleler ve fiziksel engelliler fizyonomik gerekçeler ve vücut ısısı ayrımlarına dayalı damgalamalarla karşı karşıya kalmaktaydı. Damgalama, sağlam bedenli erkek standardından fiziksel sapmalara dayanmaktaydı. Kalokagathia idealinin ardında gizlenen fizyonomik kavram damgalamayı yeniden üretmişti. Vücut ısısı, ayrımcı uygulamaların şekillenmesinde önemli bir rol oynamış; sıcaklık erdemlerle ilişkilendirilmiş ve erkek bedeni üstün sayılmıştı. Kadınlar daha soğuk bedenleri nedeniyle aşağı görülmüş, köleler ise soğuk ve aciz olarak değerlendirilerek toplumsal hiyerarşiler pekiştirilmişti. Kadınlar ve köleler normatif olmayan vücut sıcaklıkları nedeniyle atletik ideallerden dışlanırken, bedensel engelliler de çirkin ve deforme olmuş bedenleri nedeniyle dışlanmıştı. Çünkü Antik Olimpiyatlar yalnızca atletik yeteneklerini ortaya koyan sağlam bedene sahip erkekleri sergilemekteydi. Antik Yunan Olimpiyatları’nda kadınların görünürlüğü sadece temsili düzeydeydi. Halka açık atletik etkinliklere katılmaları kısıtlanan kadınlar, antik Olimpiyat Oyunları’nda da katı yarışma yasaklarına tabiydi. Sadece atlı araba yarışlarında evli olmayan kadınlar için birtakım istisnalar söz konusuydu. Kyniska, milattan önce 396 yılında ilk kadın Olimpiyat şampiyonu olarak tarihe geçse de, kadınların Olimpiyat Oyunları’na temsili katılım olanakları varlıklı ve statü sahibi olanlarla sınırlı olmuştu. Antik Yunan'da spor, özgür vatandaşlar ile köleler arasında bir ayrım aracı olarak hizmet etmekteydi. Antik Olimpiyatlar’ın anonim figürleri olan köleler, sadece sahipleri adına at ve araba yarışlarına katılabilmekteydi. Bazı yerel festivaller kölelerin atletik etkinliklere katılmasına izin vermiş olsa da, Olimpiyat Oyunları gibi büyük etkinlikler kölelerin doğrudan yarışmalarını yasaklayarak dışlanmışlıklarını vurgulamıştı. Bu damgalamaya dayalı atletik dışlanma, kölelerin kendilerini antik Olimpiyatlar’da yarışmacı olarak temsil etmelerini imkânsız hale getirmekteydi. Öte yandan bedensel engelliler antik Olimpiyatlar’da yarışma fırsatından tamamen mahrum bırakılmışlardı; ne temsili ne de anonim olarak yarışabilme olanağına sahiptiler. Çünkü antik Yunan toplumlarına özgü felsefi idealler, mitler, dini kalıp yargılar ve kurban ritüelleriyle pekiştirilen toplumsal yapılara gömülü olan bedensel engellilere yönelik ayrımcı uygulamalar, bedensel engellilerin antik Olimpiyatlardan tamamen dışlanmalarına yol açmaktaydı.

Kaynakça

  • Abrams, D., Hogg, M., & Marques, J. (Eds.). (2005). The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion. New York: Psychology Press.
  • Arboleda-Flórez, J. (2008). The rights of a powerless legion. In J. Arboleda-Florez, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Understanding the stigma of mental illness: theory and interventions (pp. 1-17). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Aristotle (1998). Politics. (Çev. C.D.C. Reeve). Indianapolis, USA: Hackett Publishing.
  • Barringer, J. M. (2005). The temple of Zeus at Olympia, heroes, and athletes. Hesperia, 74, 211-241.
  • Battle, B. P. (2019). “They look at you like you’re nothing”: Stigma and shame in the child support system. Symbolic Interaction, 42(4), 640-668.
  • Bertolin-Cebrian, R. (2020). The athlete in the ancient Greek world. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Bonnard, A. (2004). Antik Yunan Uygarlığı 1. (Çev: Kerem Kurtgözü). İstanbul: Evrensel Basım Yayın.
  • Bos, A. E., Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., & Stutterheim, S. E. (2013). Stigma: Advances in theory and research. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), 1-9.
  • Brockliss, W. (2019). Out of the mix: (dis)ability, intimacy, and the Homeric poems. Classical World, 113(1), 1-27.
  • Brown, D. C., McCree, D. H., & Eke, A. N. (2011). African Americans and HIV: Epidemiology, context, behavioral interventions, and future directions for prevention. In J. C. Hall, B. J. Hall & C. J. Cockerell (Eds.), HIV/AIDS in the Post-HAART Era: manifestations, treatment, and epidemiology (pp. 656-678). Shelton, CT: PMPH-USA.
  • Carson, A. (1990). Putting her in her place: Woman, dirt, and desire. In D. M. Halperin, J. J. Winkler & F. I. Zeitlin (Eds.), Before Sexuality (pp. 135-169). New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  • Crawford, A. M. (1996). Stigma associated with AIDS: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(5), 398–416.
  • Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 504-553). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Crowther, N. B. (1992). Slaves and Greek athletics. Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, 40(1), 35-42.
  • Crowther, N. B. (1996). Athlete and state: Qualifying for the Olympic Games in ancient Greece. Journal of Sport History, 23(1), 34-43.
  • Crowther, N. B. (2007). Sport in ancient times. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
  • David, R. (2017). Egyptian medicine and disabilities: From Pharaonic to Greco-Roman Egypt. In C. Laes (Ed.), Disability in antiquity (pp. 75-89). Abingdon: Routledge.
  • Dillon, Matthew (2002). Girls and women in Classical Greek religion. London: Routledge.
  • Dürrigl, M. A. (2002). Kalokagathia–beauty is more than just external appearance. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 1(4), 208-210.
  • Ebenstein, W. (2006). Toward an archetypal psychology of disability based on the Hephaestus myth. Disability Studies Quarterly, 26(4), (n.p.)
  • Estin C., & Laporte, H. (2004). Yunan ve Roma mitolojisi. Ankara: TÜBİTAK Yayınları.
  • Freeman, C. (2003). Mısır, Yunan ve Roma. (Çev. Suat Kemal Angı), Ankara: Dost Kitabevi.
  • Garland, R. (2009). Daily life of the ancient Greeks. Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press.
  • Garland, R. (2018). Athenian democracy: An experiment for the ages. Virginia, USA: The Great Courses.
  • Ghisalberti, G. (2016). The Christology of shame and the re‐evaluations of Hellenic ideas in 1 and 2 Timothy. The Heythrop Journal, 57(4), 625-637.
  • Giddens, A., & Sutton, W. S. (2018). Sosyolojide temel kavramlar. (Çev. Ali Esgin). Ankara: Phoenix Yayınevi.
  • Glassman R. M. (2017). The origins of democracy in tribes, city-states and nation-states, Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
  • Golden, M. (2008). Greek sport and social status. Teksas: University of Texas Press.
  • Hughes, B. (2019). The abject and the vulnerable: The twain shall meet: Reflections on disability in the moral economy. The Sociological Review Monographs, 67(4), 829–846.
  • Kelley, N. (2007). Deformity and disability in Greece and Rome. In H. Avalos, S. J. Melcher, & J. Schipper (Ed.), ThisAbled body: Rethinking disabilities in biblical studies (pp. 31-45). Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.
  • King, H. (2002). Hippocrates' woman: reading the female body in ancient Greece. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Koryürek, C. E. (2003). Olimpiyadlar. İstanbul: Stil Matbaacılık.
  • Kurzban, R., & Leary, M. R. (2001). Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: the functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 187-207.
  • Kyle, D. G. (2003). The only woman in all Greece: Kyniska, Agesilaus, Alcibiades and Olympia. Journal of Sport History, 30(2), 183-203.
  • Kyle, D. G. (2014). Greek female sport: rites, running, and racing. In P. Christesen & D. G. Kyle (Eds.), A companion to sport and spectacle in Greek and Roman antiquity (pp. 258-275). Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons.
  • Le Clair, J. M. (2011). Global organizational change in sport and the shifting meaning of disability. Sport in Society, 14(9), 1072-1093.
  • Lee, M. M. (2015). Body, dress, and identity in ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press.
  • Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2018). Stigma as a fundamental cause of health inequality. In B.
  • Major, J. F. Dovidio & B. G. Link (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination, and health (pp. 53–68). NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
  • Major, B., & Eccleston, C.P. (2005). Stigma and social exclusion. In D. Abrams, M. Hogg, & J.M. Marques (Eds.), The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion (pp. 63-88). New York: Psychology Press.
  • Major, B., Dovidio, J. F., Link, B. G., & Calabrese, S. K. (2018). Stigma and its implications for health: Introduction and overview. In B. Major, J. F. Dovidio, & B.G. Link (Eds.), Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination and health (pp. 3-28). NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
  • Manetti, G. (2018). Yunanistan’da spor ve oyunlar. U. Eco (Ed.), Antik Yunan içinde (ss. 246-258). İstanbul: Alfa. Mann, C. (2014). People on the fringes of Greek sport. In P. Christesen & D.G. Kyle (Eds.), A companion to sport and spectacle in Greek and Roman antiquity (pp. 276-286). Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons.
  • Meeusen, M. (2017). Plutarch's 'philosophy' of disability: Human after all. In C. Laes (Ed.), Disability in antiquity (pp. 197-209). London-New York.
  • Miller, C. T. & Kaiser, C. R. (2001). Implications of mental models of self and others for the targets of stigmatization. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 3-20). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Neuberg, S. L., Smith, D. M., & Asher, T. (2000). Why people stigmatize: Toward a biocultural framework. In T. F.
  • Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 31-61). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Ogden, D. (1994). Crooked speech: The genesis of the Spartan Rhetra. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 114, 85-102.
  • Olivova, V. (1983). Kalokagathia: The Greek ideal of the harmonious personality. Canadian Journal of History of Sport, 14(2), 1-15.
  • Paganini, M. C. (2021). Gymnasia and Greek identity in Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Parker, R., & Aggleton, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: A conceptual framework and implications for action. Social Science & Medicine, 57(1), 13-24.
  • Parry, M. (2013). From monsters to patients: A disability history, PhD dissertation, Arizona State University.
  • Potter, David. (2012). The victor's crown: A history of ancient sport from Homer to Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Pryor, J. B., & Reeder, G. D. (2011). HIV-related stigma. In J. C. Hall, B. J. Hall & C. J. Cockerell (Eds.), HIV/AIDS in the
  • Post-HAART Era: manifestations, treatment, and epidemiology (pp. 790-806). Shelton, CT: PMPH-USA.
  • Quinn, D. M. (2006). Concealable versus conspicuous stigmatized identities. In S. Levin, & C. van Laar (Eds.), Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 83-103). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  • Reid, H. (2010). Aristotle's pentathlete. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 4(2), 183-194.
  • Reid, H. (2012). Athletic beauty in classical Greece: A philosophical view. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 39(2), 281-297.
  • Reid, H. (2020). Athletic virtue and aesthetic values in Aristotle’s ethics. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 47(1), 63-74.
  • Rose, M. L. (2003). The staff of Oedipus: Transforming disability in ancient Greece. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Sagaert, C. (2017). Kadın çirkinliğinin tarihi. İstanbul: Maya Yayınları.
  • Schwartz, C. G. (1956). The stigma of mental illness. Journal of Rehabilitation, 22(4), 7-8.
  • Sennett R. (2008). Ten ve taş: Batı uygarlığında beden ve şehir (Çev. Tuncay Birkan) İstanbul: Metis Yayınları.
  • Slattery, M. (2002). Sosyolojide temel fikirler. (Çev. Ümit Tatlıcan & Gülhan Demiriz). Bursa: Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Swaddling, J. (2000). Antik olimpiyat oyunları (Çev. Burçak Gürün). İstanbul: Homer Kitabevi.
  • Sweet, W. E. (1987). Sport and recreation in ancient Greece: A sourcebook with translations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Takács, F. (1992). Ethos and olympism: The ethic principles of olympism. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 27(3), 223–233.
  • Toohey, K., & Veal, A. J. (2007). The Olympic Games: A social science perspective. Norfolk: Biddles.
  • Towler, A. J., & Schneider, D. J. (2005). Distinctions among stigmatized groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), 1-14.
  • Varga, I. (2005). The body-The new sacred? The body in hypermodernity. Current Sociology, 53(2), 209–235.
  • Visser, M., & Sipsma, H. (2013). The experience of HIV-related stigma in South Africa. In P. Laimputting (Ed.), Stigma, discrimination and living with HIV/AIDS: A cross cultural perspective (pp. 205–227). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
  • Weiler, I. (2002). Inverted kalokagathia. Slavery & Abolition, 23(2), 9-28.
  • Young, D. C. (2004). A brief history of the Olympic Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  • Younger, J. G. (2021). Sport and spectacle in the Greek Bronze Age. In A. Futrell & T. F. Scanlon (Eds.), The Oxford handbook sport and spectacle in the ancient world (pp. 47-61). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Zowisło, M. (2010). On virtue in the context of sport. Physical Culture and Sport: Studies and Research, 47(1), 89-94.
Toplam 74 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Spor Hekimliği
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Buket Aydemir Bu kişi benim 0000-0001-9567-5382

Mustafa Yıldız 0000-0002-9483-0341

Yayımlanma Tarihi 10 Haziran 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 20 Şubat 2024
Kabul Tarihi 26 Mart 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Aydemir, B., & Yıldız, M. (2024). Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability. Sportive, 7(1), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.53025/sportive.1440189
AMA Aydemir B, Yıldız M. Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability. SPORTIVE. Haziran 2024;7(1):69-87. doi:10.53025/sportive.1440189
Chicago Aydemir, Buket, ve Mustafa Yıldız. “Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability”. Sportive 7, sy. 1 (Haziran 2024): 69-87. https://doi.org/10.53025/sportive.1440189.
EndNote Aydemir B, Yıldız M (01 Haziran 2024) Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability. Sportive 7 1 69–87.
IEEE B. Aydemir ve M. Yıldız, “Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability”, SPORTIVE, c. 7, sy. 1, ss. 69–87, 2024, doi: 10.53025/sportive.1440189.
ISNAD Aydemir, Buket - Yıldız, Mustafa. “Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability”. Sportive 7/1 (Haziran 2024), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.53025/sportive.1440189.
JAMA Aydemir B, Yıldız M. Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability. SPORTIVE. 2024;7:69–87.
MLA Aydemir, Buket ve Mustafa Yıldız. “Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability”. Sportive, c. 7, sy. 1, 2024, ss. 69-87, doi:10.53025/sportive.1440189.
Vancouver Aydemir B, Yıldız M. Conspicuous Stigmatized Identities in the Ancient Olympics: Femininity, Slavery, and Physical Disability. SPORTIVE. 2024;7(1):69-87.